BOARD OF EDUCATION— THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
BUREAU OF REFERENCE, RESEARCH AND STATISTICS 



PUPILS' PROGRESS 

THROUGH THE 

GRADES 



1922 
Publication No, 19 



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Pupils' Progress 

through the 

Grades 



Issued by the Bureau of Reference, Research and Statistics 
E>UGENE A. NiFENECKER, Director 



-(\Ja..•U^\^l''-^\) BOARD OF EDUCATION 

THE CITY OF NEW YORK v 

George J. Ryan, President, 

Harry B. Chambers, Vice-President 

Mrs. Emma L. Murray Dr. John A. Ferguson 

John E. Bowe M. Samuel Stern 

Arthur S. Somers 



William L. Ettinger, 
Superintendent of Schools 



1922 
Publication No. 19 






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LIBRARY OF CONGKPSS 
RECEIVED 

OCT 201922 

OOOUMCNTS D V .... j 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

LIST OF TABLES [ 6 

LIST OF FIGURES :..... 9 

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL TO BOARD OF EDUCATION FROM 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS U 

I. INTRODUCTION..: 15 

II. THE AGES OF PUPILS IN RELATION TO THEIR GRADES 17 

1. Distribution of pupils in elementary schools according to ages 
and grades 17 

2. Variability of ages of pupils within the same grade 20 

3. Median ages, and upper and lower quartiles for ages of pupils in 
each regular grade 22 

4. Age-grade standards 24 

5. Number of underage, normal age and overage pupils in regular 
grades of elementary schools 25 

(a) For the city as a whole.... 25 

(b) By grades... 28 

(c) By sex '. 31 

(d) By schools 32 

6. Causes of overageness in elementary schools..... 33 

7. Age-grade distribution of high school pupils.. 35 

8. Significance of overageness... 39 

III. RATES OF PROGRESS THROUGH THE GRADES 45 

1. Distribution of pupils according to terms spent in school 46 

2. Standard rates of progress 48 

3. Variability in the rates of progress _ 50 

4. Number of pupils who have made rapid, normal and slow progress 53 

(a) For the city as a whole.. 53 

(6) By grades 56 

(c) By sex ! 58 

(d) By schools 60 

5. Age-grade status in relation to progress , 61 

6. Causes of slow progress 65 

(a) Causes assigned by Dr. Maxwell 65 

(6) Report of the Committee on Overage, 1910 66 

(c) Investigation of Ayres, 1908 67 

{d) Study of non-promotions by Dr. Bachman 68 

(1) Promotion, non-promotion and size of class 68 

(2) Promotion, non-promotion and absence 68 

(3) Promotion, non-promotion and overage 68 

(4) Inability to use the English language, as a 

factor in non-promotion 69 

(5) Promotion, non-promotion and part time.... 69 

(e) Measuring the abilities of retarded pupils : 69 

3 



PAGE 

IV. PROMOTIONS AND NON-PROMOTIONS ... 76 

1. Promotions for the school year ending July 31, 1921 76 

2. Rates of promotion by boroughs, districts and schools 82 

3. Promotion rates for preceding years * 84 

4. Significance of non-promotions 86 

V. CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS AS A FACTOR OF .PROGRESS.. 92 

1. Our traditional grading system 92 

2. Assumptions and implications of the traditional system of grading 93 

3. Effectiveness of our traditional grading system as a means of 
classification of pupils 93 

(a) Variability in ages. 93 

(&) Variability in amount of instruction. 94 

(c) Variability in achievement 94 

(1) Variability of pupils in spelling ability 94 

(2) Variability in penmanship skill. 96 

(3) Variability in geography 97 

(4) Variability in arithmetic 98 

{d) Variability in mental ability 98 

4. Remedial measures that have been tried.. 102 

(a) Segregation of physically handicapped children into 

special classes... 103 

(6) Segregation of mentally defective and other atypical 

pupils -. 104 

(c) Classes for non-English speaking foreigners 104 

{d) Efforts to increase the progress of overage and retarded 

pupils — - 104 

(1) Special classes for overage pupils 104 

(2) Special classes in vacation schools. 105 

(3) Classification of pupils in overage classes 
into classes of bright, normal and dull pupils 105 

(4) Typical plans and devices adopted to help 
the faiUng or backward pupil to succeed by 
giving him special individual attention, addi- 
tional time, etc 105 

(5) Reorganization plans 106 

(6) Double-time plan 106 

(7) Caring for special pupils in regular classes.. 107 

(8) The Batavia plan... 107 

(e) Provision for more rapid progress of bright pupils 107 

(1) Organization of plus classes... 108 

(2) Organization of rapid advancement classes 108 

(3) Flexibility in promotions 108 

(4) Typical schemes adopted in some schools 

and districts to facilitate rapid progress.. 108 

(5) Experimental high school for pupils who 

have completed the sixth grade in ele- 
mentary schools and who are of conspic- 
uous ability 108 

(6) Rapid advancement classes in junior high 

schools .— - 108 

(7) Terman classes.... 109 

4 



PAGE 

(/) Classification and grading of pupils 109 

(1) Extract from report of associate superinten- 

dent Haaren 109 

(2) A proposed triple system of grading 109 

^ (3) Organization of entire school on the basis 

of ability of pupils Ill 

(4) Classification of pupils according to weak- 

est subjects Ill 

(5) Grouping of pupils according to physiolog- 

ical age , Ill 

(6) Grouping on the basis of the results of 

Binet tests Ill 

(g) The need of individualizing class teaching recognized.. Ill 

(h) Modification of course of study 112 

(i) Miscellaneous 114 

5. Better grading through the use of mental and educational meas- 
urements 114 

(a) Educational status as a bas^ of grading 115 

(6) Mental abihty as a basis for grading 116 

(c) Grading scheme employed in a number of schools 117 

VI. FLEXIBILITY VERSUS UNIFORMITY IN SCHOOL ORGANIZA- 
TION AND PROGRESS 119 

1 . Significance for school organization of pupil classification accord- 

ing to abihty 119 

2. Specific provision required for varying pupil groups 119 

(a) Very dull or backward pupils 119 

(6) Dull pupils 120 

(c) Average or normal groups 121 

(d) Bright pupils, above average ability 121 

(e) Very bright or gifted pupils 122 

(/) Summary 122 

3. Flexible standards of progress ;.. 122 

4. Accomplishment quotient. 124 

VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 135 

VIII. APPENDIX : 137 



LIST OF TABLES 



I. Age-grade distribution of pupils in the regular grades in the elemen- 
tary schools of the entire city on February 28, 1921 — — -. 18 

II. Distribution of pupils in kindergartens and in special classes accord- 

, ing to ages. - 19 

III. Percent, of pupils in each regular grade of each age.... 21 

IV. Medians, upper and lower quartiles for ages of pupils entering each 

regular grade, elementary schools 23 

V. Age-grade standards used in New York, 1904-1921.. 24 

VI. Number of pupils in regular grades — underage, normal age and overage 26 
VII. Percentage of pupils in each grade that are underage, normal age and 

overage 26 

VIII. Percentage of underage, normal age and overage boys and girls in 

each grade ^ 31 

IX. Distribution of elementary schools according to percentage of under- 
age, normal age and overage pupils 32 

X. Percentage of pupils according to causes of overage 34 

XI. Distribution of pupils in high schools according to ages and grades — 

February 28, 1921.... 36 

XII. Number of pupils underage, normal age and overage in high schools.. 36 

XIII. Percentage of pupils underage, normal age and overage in high schools 38 

XIV. Distribution of twelve-year-old pupils by grades 40 

XV. Grade which may be completed by normal progress at age sixteen, 

by pupils at present' overage for their grades.. 42 

XVI. Probable ages, upon completion of the 8B grade, of present overage 

pupils in the grades specified 43 

XVII. Distribution of pupils in regular grades in elementary schools accord- 
ing to progress 47 

XVIII. Number of pupils in each grade according to degree of acceleration 

or retardation.. 54 

XIX. Percentage of pupils in each grade according to degree of acceleration 

or retardation..... 55 

XX. Percentage of girls and boys in each grade who made rapid progress, 

normal progress and slow progress 58 

XXI. Distribution of schools according to percentages of rapid progress, 

normal progress and slow progress pupils 60 

XXII. Comparison of rates of rapid progress in regular schools and in junior 

high schools ..: 61 

XXIII. Percentage of pupils in each grade in each age-grade progress classi- 

fication... 62 

XXIV. Classification of pupils according to both age-grade status and progress 64 
XXV. Number of pupils in each thousand in each classification according 

to age-grade status and progress 64 

XXVI. Number of pupils per thousand for each age-grade status group ac- 
cording to progress 64 

XXVII. Number of pupils per thousand in each progress classification accord- 
ing to age-grade status 65 

XXVIII. Distribution according to grades and ages of 810 pupils retarded more 

than four school terms.. 70 



PAGE 

XXIX. Distribution of 810 retarded pupils according to mental age ^ 71 

XXX. Distribution of 810 retarded pupils according to the degree of mental 

"underageness" and "overageness" 71 

XXXI. I. Q.'s of 810 retarded pup'ls in grades 2B to 8B 73 

XXXII. E. Q.'s of 810 retarded pupils in grades 2B to 8B 74 

XXXIII. Promotions by grades for the term ending January 31, 1921 77 

XXXIV. Promotions by grades for the term ending June 30, 1921.... :.. 78 

XXXV. Non-promotions, fall term ending January 31, 1921 80 

XXjXVI. Non-promotions, spring term ending June 30, 1921 81 

XXXVII. Rates of promotion by boroughs and grades for each term of the 

school year, 1920-1921... 83 

XXXVIII. Average rates of promotion for all grades by districts for fall and 

spring terms 83 

XXXIX. Rates of promotion by schools for both terms of the school year 

ending July 31, 1921... 84 

XL. Rates of promotion for each grade in elementary schools for 1911-1921 85 
XLI. Distribution of one thousand pupils resulting from the application of 
the actual rates of promotion for each grade that occurred during 

the last eight years 88 

XLII. Effect of non-promotions in increasing register — one thousand pupils 
assumed to enter lA each term and the rate of promotion to con- 
tinue at 88 per cent 90 

XLIII. Percentage of pupils in each grade obtaining each score — Spelling tests 95 
XLIV. Percentage of pupils in each grade whose scores exceeded or fell below 

the average for each grade — spelling... 95 

XLV. Percentage of pupils of each grade who exceeded the standard scores of 
higher grades in penmanship or who fell below the standard scores 

of lower grades 96 

XLVI. Scores in New York standard geography tests obtained by pupils of 

grades 5A to 8B 97 

XLVII. Scores in arithmentic, Woody-McCall Test — Mixed Fundamentals — 

Obtained by pupils of grades ^A to 8B 98 

XLVIII. Distribution of 350 pupils: 

(a) By grades and chronological ages 99 

(b) By grades and mental ages , 99 

XLIX. Distribution of pupils according to age-grade status 100 

L. Distribution of pupils in a 4 A class according to chronological and 

mental ages 101 

LI. Distribution of 641 pupils according to grades and chronological ages 125 

LII. Distribution of 641 pupils according to grades and mental ages 126 

LIII. Distribution of 641 pupils, grades 4A to 6B, according to age-grade 

status - 126 

LIV. Number of pupils per thousand in one school according to age-grade 

classification 127 

LV. Educational ages of 641 pupils in grades 4A to 6B inclusive 128 

LVI. Intelligence quotients of 641 pupils in grades 4A to 6B inclusive 129 

LVII. Distribution of Educational quotients of 641 pupils in grades 4A to 6B 129 
LVIII. Accomplishment quotients for 641 pupils in grades 4A to 6B, inclusive 131 
LIX. Distribution of 641 pupils according to intelhgence and accomphsh- 

ment quotients 132 

LX. Number and percentage of pupils according to ability and accomplish- 
ment 132 

7 ': 



PAGE 

LXI. Percentage of pupils according to ability showing below expected 
accomplishment, normal accomplishment and above expected 

accomplishment : 134 

LXII. Age-grade distribution of pupils in the regular grades of the elemen- 
tary schools of the entire city on February 28, 1921, boys 138 

LXIII. Age-grade distribution of pupils in the regular grades of the elemen- 
tary schools of the entire city on February 28, 1921, girls 139 

LXIV. Distribution according to ages and grades for the Borough of Man- 
hattan : 

(a) Boys - - - 140 

(b) Girls : 141 

LXV. Distribution according to ages and grades for the Borough of The 

Bronx : 

(a) Boys -- - - --: -- 142 

(b) Girls .__._ : .- 143 

LXVI. Distribution according to ages and grades for the Borough of Brooklyn : 

(a) Boys - - 144 

(6) Girls - - — - 145 

LXVII. Distribution according to ages and grades for the Borough of Queens: 

(a) Boys 146 

(b) Girls - - 147 

LXVIII. Distribution according to ages and grades for the Boi'ough of Rich- 

. mond : 

(a) Boys : -- 148 

(b) Girls - - - 149 

LXIX. Distribution of pupils in elementary schools in regular grades accord- 
ing to number of terms in schools : 

(a) Boys... 150 

(6) Girls :..... 151 

LXX. Age-grade and progress statistics' for each school (by per cents) 152 



LIST OF FIGURES 



I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 
IX. 

X. 

XL 
XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 
XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 



PAGE 

Distribution of pupils in elementary sfchools according to age per thou- 
sand - - --- 20 

Percentage of pupils of each age in the first half of each regular school 

grade in elementary schools..- - 22 

Median ages, upper and lower quartiles for pupils in each grade, lA to 

8B 24 

Number of pupil's in every thousand on register in regular grades in 

elementary schools who are underage, normal and overage 27 

(a) Percentage of pupils in each grade that are of normal age ..— 28 

(b) Distribution of normal age pupils in regular grades 28 

(a) Percentage of pupils in each grade who are underage 29 

(6) Distribution of underage pupils in the regular grades... 29 

(a) Percentage of pupils in each grade who are overage 30 

(b) Percentage of all overage pupils in each grade 30 

Underage, normal age and overage pupils in each grade by per cents 30 

Percentage of boys and girls in each grade who are underage, normal 

age and overage 31 

Percentage of overageness in each grade caused by late entrance, retarda- 
tion and by late entrance and retardation combined 34 

Distribution of high school pupils per thousand according to age 37 

Percentage of pupils in each high school grade underage, normal age 

and overage - 38 

Distribution of ten-year-old pupils per thousand by grades 39 

Distribution of twelve-year-old pupils per thousand by grades 41 

Distribution of pupils in regular elementary grades per thousand accord- 
ing to number of terms spent in school 48 

Distribution of every thousand pupils in grade 8B according to the 

number of terms in school --- 49 

Distribution of pupils in every thousand in grade SB according to terms 

or half years in school 50 

Distribution of pupils in every thousand who had spent ten terms or 

half years in school according to grade reached 51 

Distribution among the grades (2B to 8B) of pupils who have had 

sixteen or more terms of schooling 52 

Number of pupils out of each thousand according to degree of ^apid 

and slow progress.. 56 

Percentage of pupils in each grade according to progress 57 

Percentage of accelerated, normal and retarded progress pupils in each 

grade, by sex 59 

Distribution of 810 retarded pupils to show degree of underageness 

and overageness on the basis of mental age-grade standards 72 

(a) I. Q.'s of 810 retarded pupils in grades 2B to 8B 73 

(6) E. Q.'s of 810 retarded pupils in grades 2B to 8B 75 

Rates of promotion by grades in comparison with average rate for all 

grades for term ending January 31, 1921 79 

Rates of promotion by grades in comparison with average rate for all 

grades for term ending June 30, 1921 79 

9 



PAGE 

XXVII. (a) Percentage of pupils in each grade failing to receive promotions on 

last day of term ending January 31, 1921 -.. 81 

(b) Percentage of all non-promotions found in each grade. ..- 81 

XXVIII. (a) Percentage of pupils in each grade failing to receive promotions on 

last day of term ending June 30, 1921... 82 

(6) Percentage of all non-promotions found in each grade 82 

XXIX. Rates of promotion for each grade for June, 1911, June, 1916 and 

June, 1921...... 86 

XXX. Rates of promotion for regular grades for both terms of each year 

from 1911 to 1921, inclusive 86 

XXXI. Distribution by percentage of 988 8B pupils according to penmanship 

ability :.. - 96 

XXXII. Guide for reclassification of pupils 117 

XXXIII. Distribution of I. Q.'s, E. Q.'s and A. Q.'s for 641 pupils.... 130 

XXXIV. Average A. Q. for each level of "l. Q." (641 pupils)... 133 



10 



October 2, 1922. 
TO THE BOARD OF EDUCATION 

Ladies and Gentlemen: 

I beg leave to present herewith, for your information, a very valu- 
able, comprehensive, and scholarly report made by Mr. Eugene A. 
Nifenecker, Director of the Bureau of Reference, Research and Statis- 
tics, showing present conditions in our schools as revealed by data deahng 
with the age, the progress, and the achievements of our pupils. I beheve 
that the facts and the suggestions contained therein are of such signifi- 
cance that I made them the subject of my last annual address to the 
supervising officers of the school system. 

I entitled my address "Facing the Facts" as indicative of a serious 
attitude on the part of the professional staff to discover and to remedy 
conditions that are characteristic of present-day school systems, and 
that are largely the result of an inadequate "methodology or technique 
of classifying and grouping our pupils. 

Our school system is a growth and an inheritance. Our school of 
today is the successor of the ungraded school of older days, in which 
there was no attempt at class groups, group instruction, and semi-annual 
promotions. As distinct from such individualistic type of organization, 
stands the city school of today, with its uniform course of study, its series 
of grades of equal allotments of work to be covered by all pupils in equal 
time, and its . semi-annual sorting and advancement of pupils on the 
basis of successful achievement. Both the organization and the proced- 
ure are based upon the assumption that all children have about equal 
mental ability, that they can progress through the grades on the basis 
of uniform treatment in about equal time, and that the kind of sorting 
at the close of the term to which we are accustomed, namely, classifica- 
tion on the basis of unstandardized, informational tests, is sufficient to 
insure pupils groups, homogeneous as regards ability and achievements. 

Is it not worth while, therefore, to regard our work in a critical, 
impersonal manner and to ask ourselves whether or not we should con- 
tinue unchanged systems of school management and instruction based 
upon such untenable assumptions? 

Although our present grading system is largely chronological and 
assumes that pupils of about equal ability and equal age enter at the 
same time and master subjects and progress at the same rate, we know 
that the truth of the matter is that pupils of a given class as ordinarily 
constituted are of widely different mental types, submormal, dull, aver- 
age, bright, or even precocious, are of widely different ages, have pro- 
gressed at different rates, and differ very much indeed in the mastery of 
school subjects. In other words, while every important consideration, 
economic and pedagogical, makes homogeneity of the class group desir- 
able, we still are far from the attainment of such a happy condition. 

Fortunately, I believe that the rapid advance in the technique of 
measuring mental ability and achievements means that we stand on the 
threshold of a new era in which we will increasingly group our pupils 
on the basis of both intelligence and accomplishment quotients and of 

11 



necessity provide differentiated curricula, varied modes of instruction, 
and flexible promotion schemes to meet the crying needs of our children. 
In concluding my address to the Superintendents, I said: 

''I need not assure you that the foregoing analysis of present condi- 
tions should not be interpreted as an expression of lack of confidence in 
the effectiveness of our work nor regarded as a plea for the hasty adop- 
tion of ill-advised plans intended to change the conditions revealed. I 
trust to your intelligence and your initiative to study the conditions in 
the schools subject to your supervision and gradually to effect an im- 
provement of conditions by remedies as various as your wisdom may 
suggest and the needs of the situation may demand. As a statement 
of my earnest purpose I cannot do better than to quote the father of 
modern inductive method, Sir Francis Bacon, who wrote: 'I do not 
endeavor, either by triumphs of confutation or assumption of authority, 
to invest these inventions of mine with any majesty. I have not sought 
nor do I seek, either to force or ensnare men's judgments, but I lead 
them to things themselves and the concordances of things, that they 
may see for themselves what they have, what they can dispute, what 
they can add, and contribute to the common stock.' " 

Respectfully submitted, 

William L. Ettinger, 

Superintendent of Schools. 



12 



June 15, 1922. 

Dr. William L. Ettinger, 

Superintendent of Schools. 

Dear Sir: 

In accordance with your suggestions made several months ago, I 
beg leave to submit herewith the results of a comprehensive study con- 
ducted by this Bureau to determine certain conditions existing in our 
school system. While the data relating to the age, the progress, and 
the achievements of our pupils are not unlike those revealed in surveys 
made in other cities, I believe that certain conclusions that are drawn 
will prove of general interest and probably of some value. 

Yours very truly, 

Eugene A. Nifenecker, 
Director of Reference, Research and Statistics. 



13 



I— INTRODUCTION 

It is generally held that the primary purpose of our public school 
system is to provide a complete elementary education for as many 
children of our City as possible. In furtherance of such aim the laws 
of our State compel all children, the dull as well as the bright, the un- 
willing as well as the willing, to attend school regularly from the age of 
seven to the age of sixteen. If the child has completed the elementary 
course he may leave at fourteen. If he has reached the 7 A he may leave 
at fifteen. When he becomes sixteen he may drop out irrespective of 
the grade he has reached. 

Underlying our present elementary school organization is the assump- 
tion that for the most part our pupils will enter at the ages of six or 
seven, that they will progress one grade each school term, and that they 
will complete the elementary course at the age of fourteen to fifteen. 
Our course of study, theoretically at least, is formulated so as to fit the 
needs of the ''average" child and to permit of this "normal" progress 
through the grades. 

The actual progress of our pupils through the grades is a matter of 
great importance and significance from the point of view of the child 
as well as of the school system. A pupil who fails to be promoted or 
to progress "normally" is obliged to repeat the work already covered. 
His progress is "retarded," he becomes overage or older than he should 
be for his grade. If such failure is frequent the pupil finds himself at 
fifteen or sixteen in a comparatively low grade. He drops out, is elimi- 
nated. Failure to progress normally means the repetition by the pupils of 
work already covered, and such repetition means twice or thrice the 
educational cost of a given amount of instruction. Failure to progress 
normally means congestion or overcrowding, particularly in the lower 
grades. Failure to progress normally means also the probable elimina- 
tion of very many pupils and their entrance upon the life of the outside 
world with only a fifth or sixth year schooling. Last, but even more 
vital, repeated failure to progress upon the part of pupils means a loss 
of self-esteem, a lack of self-confidence and a degree of personal dis- 
couragement which must have its effect, more or less permanent, upon 
the pupils' attitude in their subsequent contact with the problems of 
after-school life. Retardation, overageness and elimination are the sources 
of educational, economic and childhood wastage. 

There are a number of ways in which the progress of pupils in our 
school system may be measured. Among them are first, the pupils' 
age-grade status, the relation of the pupils' ages to the grades they have 
reached or completed; second, their rates of progress, the number of 
terms spent in school to reach given grades; and third, the current prog- 
ress as shown by the rates of promotion and non-promotion. 

Age-grade statistics and grade-progress statistics in that they enable 
us to determine the extent of retardation existing in our schools and 
also the probable amount of elimination, are very significant as indices 
of the efficiency of our school administration, and in large measure show 
how successful our schools have been in adjusting themselves to the 

15 



needs and powers of the children. Statistics for the elementary schools 
in New York showing the ages of pupils with reference to the grade they 
had reached were first presented in 1904. In that year Dr. Maxwell 
published in his annual report figures which showed that 39% of the 
pupils in the elementary grades were above the normal age for their 
grade. At that time this type of statistics was practically unknown and 
the publication of such figures by Dr. Maxwell aroused a great deal of 
discussion. Subsequently it was discovered that New York was not 
unique in the existence of such a condition, which was found to 
be common to all school systems in varying degree. Since 1904 this 
form of child accounting has become quite general, and age-grade sta- 
tistics now form a regular part of the school statistics gathered by most 
school systems. Grade-progress statistics showing the rates of actual 
progress, the time taken to complete or to reach given grades are not so 
common. Attention is called to the fact that in this study a new form 
of report was used which made it possible for the first time to gather 
data not only as to the age-grade status of pupils but also on their rates 
of progress. The new report blank is reproduced in a subsequent 
section. 

The present report gives the results of the analysis of the data sub- 
mitted by the principals of all the elementary and high schools in the 
age-grade progress survey made during the spring term of the last school 
year. The facts presented indicate the urgent necessity of considering 
the possibility of accelerating the progress of pupils through the grades 
by a more scientific method of grading than obtains at present, by a 
more purposive and comprehensive attempt at adjustment of course of 
study and instruction to the needs and powers of our pupils than has 
been made to date and by the adoption of a more flexible scheme of pro- 
motion. 



16 



II— THE AGES OF PUPILS IN RELATION TO THEIR GRADES 

The most general method employed in studying the progress of 
pupils through the grades for anj^ given school system is the compilation 
and analysis of age-grade statistics which show how many pupils there 
are of each age in each school grade. This section of the report presents 
an analysis of such age-grade data compiled from the reports submitted 
last March by the principal of each elementary and each high school. 

L Distribution of Pupils in Elementary Schools According to 

Ages and Grades 

Table I shows the distribution of pupils in the regular grades of 
the elementary schools according to their ages and to the grades they 
entered on February 1, 192 L The totals across the bottom of the table 
show the number of pupils in each grade and the totals in the column 
on the right tell the number of pupils of each given age in all the grades. 
The table reads as follows: There were in the lA grade on February 28, 
21 pupils who were under five years of age, 294 who were between five 
and five and one-hailf years old, 12,588 who were between five and one- 
half and six years old, and so on. Table II shows the distribution of 
pupils in kindergarten classes and in special classes according to age and 
type of class. 

Figure 1 shows the number of pupils of each age out of every thousand 
children in the elementary grades (inclusive of special classes). It reads: 
Out of every thousand pupils on register, 8 were between four and five, 
52 were between five and six, 104 were between six and seven, 111 were 
between seven and eight, 113 were between eight and nine and so on 
The data shown in the diagram may be read as percents as follows: 

5,2% of all the children on register on February 28th are five years 
old, 10.4% are six years old, 11.1% are seven years old, and so on to 
three-tenths of one percent, who were sixteen years of age. The num- 
ber of those who were seventeen and who were eighteen and over was 
so small proportionately that they do not appear in the diagram. The 
number between seventeen and eighteen was four one-hundredths of one 
percent, and of those eighteen and over was one one-hundredth of one 
percent, of the total register. 



17 



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Figure 1 — Distribution of Pupils per Thousand in Elementary 
Schools According to Age 



2. Variability in Ages of Pupils Within the Same Grade 

One of the first characteristics to strike the attention upon inspec- 
tion of Table I is the extreme variabihty in the ages of those who are 
in the same grade. In the lA grade, for instance (Coh 2, Table I), the 
children are of thirteen different ages, a range greater in years than the 
time required theoretically to complete the elementary course. In this 
grade there are 21 pupils under five, 12,882 between five and six, 27,583 
between six and seven, and so on down to 66 who are between twelve 
and thirteen, 45 between thirteen and fourteen, and 50 scattered between 
fourteen and eighteen. Taking the 8B as another instance, we find 10 
pupils under eleven, 381 between eleven and twelve, 3,886 between 
twelve and thirteen, 12,614 between thirteen and fourteen, and so on 
down to 675 over sixteen, 92 seventeen and 11 over eighteen. The 
other grades show a similar variability. 

The wide range of ages which are represented in the pupil groups 
within the same grade is more clearly brought out by Table III which 
shows the percentage of pupils in each grade of each age. Pupils of all 
ages are found in almost all grades. A range of more than ten years 
exists for each one of the grades. Figure 2 shows graphically such data 
as well as the existing overlapping of ages for the first half of each school 
year. 



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21 




3. Median Ages and Upper and Lower Quartiles for Ages 
or Pupils in Each Regular Grade 

While the age distributions presented in Table I are very valuable, 
it is trying to read and difficult to grasp the details. Such statistical 
presentations involving large arrays of figures are therefore put into sum- 
marized form. The most useful single summary is an expression of the 
general trend or tendency of the distribution under consideration. Table 
IV which follows, presents therefore a condensation of Tables I and III 
for regular grades. It shows the median age of pupils in each of the 
grades. 

While there are several measures used to describe the general trend 
of a distribution, in this case the median is the most useful one to employ. 
If one examines the distribution of ages for each grade in Table I it will 
be seen that the number of pupils of each age increases rapidly to a maxi- 
mum, and then falls off slowly toward the higher ages. This is illus- 
trated in Figure 2. Such a distribution of the frequencies of ages is 
called a "skew" distribution. It is skewed or twisted from the normal 
curve of distribution, in which the rise to a peak from the lowest ages 
would be at the same rate as the fall from the maximum towards the 
highest ages. In such cases as our distributions then, it is desirable to 
use as a typical expression of ages in each grade a measure which is not 
affected by the few pupils who are extremely old for their grade, as would 
be the case if we used the arithmetical average. The median is there- 
fore employed. It is the middle measure of the distribution, or more 
exactly it is the point in the distribution above which and below which 
there are an equal number of pupils. For instance, in the table we see 
that the median age in the lA grade is 6 years, 5 months. This means 

22 . 



that 50% of the pupils are younger and 50% are older than this age. 
The table also gives the lower or first quartile and the upper or third 
quartile. The lower quartile marks the point in the distril)ution below 
which are found 25% of the pupils and above which are 75% of the cases. 
The upper or third quartile marks the point above which are 25% and 
below which are 75% of the pupils. The cases between the first and third 
quartiles constitute the middle 50% of the distribution. The table shows 
the range of ages for this middle 50% or the distance between the two 
quartiles. 

TABLE IV— MEDIANS, UPPER AND LOWER QUARTILES FOR AGES OF PUPILS 
ENTERING EACH REGULAR GRADE— ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 















Differences 






Lower 






Upper 


Range 


between 




Grades 


quartile 


Me 


dian 


quartile 


middle 50 % 


grade 


Grade 














medians 


standards 




Yrs. Mos. 


Yrs. 


-Mos. 


Yrs. Mos. 


Yrs. Mos. 


Mos. 




lA 


5 11 


6 


5 


6 10 


.... 11 




G - 7 


IB 


6 4 


6 


9 


7 4 


1 


4 


&Vi- ^V2 


2A 


7 1 


7 


7 


8 1 


1 


10 


7 - 8 


2B 


7 .5 


7 


10 


8 8 


1 3 


3 


-'A- S'A 


3A 


8 1 


8 


7 


9 4 


1 3 


9 


8-9 


3B 


8 .5 


8 


11 


9 9 


1 4 


6 


83^- 9}^ 


4A 


9 1 


9 


8 


10 7 


1 6 


9 


9 -10 


4B 


9 r> 


10 


1 


11 


1 7 


.5 


914-101^ 


5A 


10 1 


10 


9 


11 9 


1 8 


8 


10 -11 


SB 


10 6 


11 


2 


12 2 


1 8 


5 


IOI2-IU2 


6A 


11 1 


11 


9 


12 10 


1 9 


7 


11 -12 


6B 


11 6 


12 


2 


13 2 


1 8 


5 


11,^-12^ 


7A 


12 


12 


9 


13 S 


1 8 


7 


12 -13 


7B 


12 .5 


13 


1 


13 11 


1 6 


4 


12i^-13J^ 


8A 


12 9 


13 


6 


14 4 


1 7 


h 


13 -14 


SB 


13 3 


13 


10 


14 7 


1 4 


4 


rs^i-UA 


9A 


13 1 


13 


10 


14 6 


1 5 


1 


14 -15 


9B 


13 .5 


14 


1 


14 9 


1 4 


3 


14.14-1614 



The table shows that of the pupils entering the lA grade, 25% are 

5 years 11 months or younger, 50% are younger than, and 50% are older 
than 6 years, 5 months, while 75% are younger and 25% are older than 

6 years and 10 months. A span of 11 months takes in the middle 50%. 
In the 8B grade, 25% of the entering pupils were 13 years and 3 months 
or younger, while 25% were older than 14 years and 7 months. Simi- 
larly with the other grades. 

The pupils cluster most closely about the median in the lower grades. 
In the lA the range of the middle 50% is but 11 months. This gradu- 
ally increases upward through the grades until it reaches a maximum 
in the 6A grade with 21 months or 1 year, 9 months. The range then 
subsides until the 8B, where it is 16 months. 

The next to last column of the table shows the differences between 
grade medians. The difference between lA and IB is but 4 months; 
that between IB and 2 A is 10 months; that between 2 A and 2B is only 
3 months. There is an alternation of small and large differences through- 
out the sixteen grades. The differences between the first half and the 
second half of any school year are smaller than the differences between 
the last half of one school year and the first half of the next school year. 

23 



^ la 15 m 2B M 25 4a 46 SL 56 wL 46 iiL 15 aa 




Sir fiipi/s ,n Ca-ch 
dt id to 36 



4, Age-Grade Standards 

In order to increase the educational experience of as many children 
as possible before their elimination from school and to accelerate their 
progress through the schools, certain age limits have been set up for each 
grade as age-grade standards. 

The various standards used in this City since 1904, when age-grade 
statistics were first reported, are shown in the following table: 

TABLE V— AGE-GRADE STANDARDS USED IN NEW YORK— 1904,-1921 



School 












year 


1904-1912 


Grade 


1913-1914 


1915-1920 


1921 


1st 


6 to 8 years 


lA 


6 to 7J^ 


6Hto 7H 


6 to 7 






IB 


6J^ to 8 


7 to 8 


6J^ to 71^ 


2d 


7 to 9 " 


2A 


7 to SV2 


7Mto 8M 


7 to 8 






2B 


71^ to 9 


8 to 9 


7J^ to 83^ 


.3d 


8 to 10 " 


3A 


8 to 9H 


81^ to 9K 


8 to 9 






3B 


81^ to 10 


9 to 10 


8}^ to 91^ 


4th 


9 to 11 " 


4A 


9 to lOJ^ 


9M to 103^ 


9 to 10 






4B 


91^ to 11 


10 to 11 


QYs to \0]4 


5th 


10 to 12 " 


5A 


10 to 11^ 


lOJ^ to 111^ 


10 to 11 






5B 


103^ to 12 


11 to 12 


lOJ^ to 113^ • 


6th 


11 to 13 " 


6A 


11 to 121^ 


111^ to 12}^ 


11 . to 12 






6B 


11}^ to 13 


12 to 13 


llj^ to 12}^ 


7th 


12 to 14 " 


7A 


12 to 13>^ 


12J^ to 131^ 


12 to 13 






7B 


13J^ to 14 


13 to 14 


123^ to 133^ 


8th 


13 to 15 " 


8A 


13 to 141^ 


13 K to 14 J^ 


13 to 14 






8B 


IZVi to 15 


14 to 15 


133^ to 143^ 



24 



From 1904 until 1913 the grade standards were arranged by years 
rather than by half years. Fl'om 1913 on, the standards were arranged 
by half years. The old yearly standards of six to eight years of age for 
the first grade, seven to nine for the second school year, etc., were not 
so exacting as the later half yearly standards of 6 to 7 3^^ years of age for 
lA, 63^ to 8 for IB, etc. this was due to the fact that on the earlier 
basis all the pupils in the first half of any yearly grade were given the 
advantage of an extra half year before being called "overage." The 
change to the 1913 l^asis represented a setting up of a higher standard. 
Both sets of standards, however, were substantially the same in that they 
represented the up-to-1534 limit for finishing the 8B grade. 

In the school years 1915 to 1920, inclusive, standards used related to 
the ages of the children at the close of each term. They represented an 
up-to-15 standard for completing the SB grade, which was severer than 
the standards used up to that time. 

The standards used this year represent the same standard, an up-to 
15 limit, but the ages are taken as at the beginning of the term. The 
data show the ages of pupils upon beginning the work in each grade. 
Table V shows the age which is considered normal for a child upon enter- 
ing each of the grades. In the lA grade the normal entering age is from 
6 to 7. As a general rule most of our pupils enter school at six. The 
Compulsory Education Law does not require the enrollment of a child 
before the age of seven, so that in fixing the normal age for entering 1 A 
one year is allowed. The normal ages for the succeeding grades are deter- 
mined by adding a half year to those of the preceding grades. 

A child who enters a grade within the age limits set up as normal 
for such grade is considered of "normal age." A pupil who reaches a 
given grade below the normal age is regarded as "under-age." A pupil 
who is older than the normal age for entering the grade is classed as "over- 
age." For instance, the age limits for beginning the 4A are 9 to 10. 
A 4A pupil 9 years old but not 10 is normal in age, one who is under 9 
is under age, one who is 10 or older is overage. 

The application of age-grade standards is shown in Table I by means 
of the heavy lines which run in steps downward across the paper from 
the lA to the lOB grades. The pupils in any grade column who are 
reported between such lines are normal in age. Those who are reported 
above such lines are underage and those included in the figures beloiv 
such standard lines are overage. 

The pupils in any age group (on any line) who are reported between 
the heavy lines are "at grade" for their age, those reported to the left of 
the heavy lines are "below grade" and those to the right are "above grade." 



5. Number of Underage, Normal Age, and Overage Pupils in 
Regular Grades of Elementary School 

(a) for the city as a whole 

Table VI, which is a condensation of Table I, shows for each grade 
the number of pupils who were underage, normal age and overage on 
February 28th, and also the extent by which they were above or below 
the normal age limits for their particular grade. Table VII presents the 
same data in the form of percentages. 



TABLE VI- 



-NUMBER OF PUPILS IN REGULAR, GRADES— UNDERAGE, NORMAL 
AGE AND OVERAGE 





Total 
number 


Underage 


Nor- 


Overage 


























of 


3 years 






Less 




mal 




Less 






3 years 


Grade 


pupils 


and 


2-3 


1-2 


than 


Total 


age 


Total 


than 


1-2 


2-3 


and 






over 


years 


years 


1 year 








1 year 


years 


years 


over 


lA 


47,263 






21 


12,882 


12,903 


27,583 


6,777 


4,740 


1,181 


397 


459 


IB 


62,690 








30 


18,177 


18,207 


33,453 


11,030 


7,785 


1,972 


717 


556 


2A 


45,901 








21 


9,469 


9,490 


24,281 


12,130 


8,073 


2,454 


882 


721 


2B 


53,282 






1 


137 


13,473 


13,611 


26,065 


13,606 


8,923 


2,902 


989 


792 


3A 


46,609 






1 


78 


10,066 


10,145 


22,168 


14,296 


8,847 


3,317 


1,169 


963 


3B 


49,834 








274 


11,882 


12,156 


22,405 


15,273 


8,794 


3,701 


1,531 


1,247 


4A 


45,193 






14 


255 


9,628 


9,897 


18,832 


16,464 


9,158 


4,102 


1,829 


1,375 


4B 


48,665 


1 


4 


469 


11,307 


11,781 


19,814 


17,070 


9,017 


4,311 


2,130 


1,612 


5A 


45,466 




9. 


405 


9,552 


9,966 


17,486 


18,014 


9,058 


4,852 


2,485 


1,619 


5B 


46,635 




17 


705 


10,486 


11,208 


17,463 


17,964 


8,948 


4,996 


2,545 


1,475 


6A 


43,501 




9 


592 


9,234 


9,835 


15,359 


18,307 


9,135 


5,251 


2,690 


1,231 


6B 


44,056 




29 


807 


9,923 


10,759 


15,881 


17,416 


9,076 


5,154 


2,487 


699 


7A 


42,010 


2 


38 


971 


9,300 


10,311 


14,836 


16,863 


9,180 


5,573 


1,837 


273 


7B 


37,135 


2 


47 


1,075 


8,421 


9,545 


14,167 


13,423 


8,509 


4,002 


813 


99 


8A 


34,839 


1 


73 


1,474 


9,357 


10,905 


12,779 


11,155 


.7,931 


2,736 


427 


61 


SB 


29,914 


1 


120 


1,505 


8,525 


10,151 


11,832 


7,931 


6,015 


1,629 


246 


41 


9A 


5,304 


2 


106 


1,019 


1,887 


3,014 


1,583 


707 


557 


124 


26 




9B 


3,923 


5 


101 


1,003 


1,495 


2,604 


979 


340 


277 


55 


7 


1 


lOA 


134 




— ■ 


17 


54 


71 


50 


13 


11 


2 






lOB 


94 






9 


35 


44 


37 


13 


13 








Total 


732,448 


14 


569 


10,867 


175,153 


186,603 


317,053 


228,792 


134,047 


58,314 


23,207 


13,224 



TABLE VII- 



-PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS IN EACH GRADE THAT ARE UNDERAGE, 
NORMAL AGE AND OVERAGE 







Underage 




Nor- 






Overage 


























Grade 


3-4 






Less 




mal 




Less 






3 years 




and 


2-3 


1-2 


than 


Total 


age 


Total 


than 


1-2 


2-3 


and 




over 


years 


years 


1 year 








1 year 


years 


years 


over 


lA 






.04 


27.26 


27.30 


58.36 


14.34 


10.03 


2.50 


0.84 


0.97 


IB 






.04 


29.00 


29.04 


53.36 


17.59 


12.42 


3:i5 


1.14 


0.89 


2A 






.04 


20.63 


20.67 


52.90 


26.43 


17.59 


5.35 


1.92 


1.57 


2B 




.0.002 


.26 


25.29 


25.55 


48.92 


25.54 


16.75 


5.45 


1.86 


1.49 


3A 




0.002 


.17 


21.60 


21.77 


47.56 


30.67 


18.98 


7.12 


2.51 


2.06 


3B 






.55 


23.84 


24.39 


44.96 


30.65 


17.65 


7.43 


3.07 


2.50 


4A 




0.03 


0.56 


21.30 


21.90 


41.67 


36.43 


20.26 


9.08 


4.05 


3.04 


4B 


0.002 


0.008 


0.96 


23.23 


24.21 


40.72 


35.08 


18.53 


8.86 


4.38 


3.31 


5A 




0.02 


0.89 


21.01 


21.92 


38.46 


39.62 


19.92 


10.67 


5.47 


3.50 


5B 




0.04 


1.51 


22.49 


24.03 


37.45 


38.52 


19.19 


10.71 


5.46 


3.16 


6A 




0.02 


1.36 


21.23 


22.61 


35.31 


42.08 


21.00 


12.07 


6.18 


2.83 


6B 




0.07 


1.83 


22.52 


24.42 


36.05 


39.53 


20.60 


11.70 


5.64 


1.59 


7A 


0.004 


0.09 


2.31 


22.14 


24.54 


35.32 


40.14 


21.85 


13.27 


4.37 


0.65 


7B 


0.006 


0.13 


2.89 


22.68 


25.70 


38.15 


36.15 


22.91 


10.78 


2.19 


0.27 


8A 


0.003 


0.21 


4.23 


26.86 


31.30 


36.68 


32.02 


22.76 


7.85 


1.23 


0.17 


8B 


0.003 


0.4 


5.03 


28.50 


33.93 


39.55 


26.51 


20.11 


5.45 


0.82 


0.14 


9A 


0.038 


2.00 


19.21 


35.58 


56.82 


29.84 


13.33 


10.50 


2.34 


0.49 




9B 


0.127 


2.58 


25.56 


38.11 


66.38 


24.95 


8.67 


7.06 


1.40 


0.18 


0.03 


lOA 






12.69 


40 30 


52 99 


37 31 


9 70 


8 21 


1 49 






lOB 






9.57 


37.23 


46.81 


39.36 


13.83 


13.83 
















Total 


0.002 


0.08 


1.48 


23.91 


25.48 


43.29 


31.24 


18.30 


7.96 


3.17 


1.81 



26 



From the above-mentioned tables it appears that out of 732,448 on 
register in the regular grades, 317,053 pupils, or 43.3%, are of normal 
age; that 186,603, or 25.5%, arc underage or one or more grades ahead 
of the grade to which their age entitles them; and that 228,792 pupils, 
or 31.2%, are overage, that is, one or more grades behind the grade to 
which their age entitles them. In other words, out of every 100 pupils 
in our regular grades 26 are underage, 43 are of normal age, and 31 are 
overage for their grades For every 100 pupils that are normal there are 
60 that are underage and 72 who are overage. 

From Table VII we learn that 18.3% of all grade pupils are overage 
by one year or less while 23.9% are underage to the same extent While 
only 1.48% are underage from one to two years, 7.98% are overage by 
that much. Only 0.08%, a very small number, are underage by two 
to three years, as compared to 3.17% overage by that amount. There 
are 1.81% of the pupils overage more than three years and practically 
none underage that degree. The total number of overage pupils is greater 
than the total of underage pupils by 42,000, and at the same time the 
degree of overageness is far greater than the degree of "underageness." 
The above data are illustrated by Figure 4 which shows the number of 
underage, normal and overage pupils out of every thousand on register 
in the regular grades. 



4^ 



25<R 



435 



f)amb»n of pupils in 
&we.ru Thousand on 
Pe.oisji.r' in re.aula.f 
grades in a/eaienrcLrU' 
Schoo/s who ape. undzpaa 



nopmaJ age, and ovzpaoe. 



165 



60 



7)Z 



laJ 






fr' Y 



Und&pa qZ 



Wge^ 



OvuNiat 



2-3 dv&p 



Attention is called to the fact that a large proportion of the pupils 
who are reported as overage are overage by one year or less. Of the 



27 



228,792 overage pupils, 134,047, or 58.5% are overage by one year or 
less; 58,314, or 25.5%, are overage from one to two years; 23,027, or 
10.1%, are overage from two to three years; and 13,224, or 5.7%, of the 
total number overage are overage three years or more. The pupils who 
are very nearly at age are generally those whom extra effort by teacher 
and pupil would bring up to grade. They offer the best opportunity for 
reducing the rate of overageness in the schools. 

(h) BY GRADES 

Passing from a consideration of the situation as a whole to an analy- 
sis of the conditions in the several grades, we see from Table VII and 
Figure 5, that the highest percentage of normal age pupils in grades lA 
to 8B appears in the lA, where it is 58.36%. The rate gradually decreases 
through the grades up to the 6 A grade, where it is 35.31%, and then 
more slowly rises until it reaches 39.55% in the 8B. Above the 8B it 
is irregular. In grades lOA and lOB relatively only a small number of 
pupils are involved. 

The lower diagram in Figure 5 shows the percent, of all normal 
pupils found in each grade. In the lA.we find 8.7% of our normal pupils, 
in the IB 10.6%, and so down to the 8B which has only 3.6%. 




QjPoj'cxrjf or pupils ui ca&gfa-de. j-/iay ar& of aapma/ aae.. 
OjJ)ijyTlDV2'ieli Of Darma/ aje. aupi/s in i'r,Qulaj' nf^clas: 



28 



The lowest percentage of underage pupils is found in 2 A with 20.67%, 
and the highest in the 8B with 33.9% (not considering the 9A to lOB 
grades). In the remaining grades the percentage Ife about the same. 
It is to be noted that the second half of each school year shows a higher 
percentage of underage than the first half year. 

The lower part of Figure 6 shows what percentage of all underage 
pupils are to be found in each grade. The curve is practically flat and 
shows again that in almost every B grade there are more underage than 
in the corresponding A grade. The exceptions are in the seventh and 
eighth years. 



^ ^ aj ^^ elI »^ i^ li ea 6j: El£ ^ 13 ^5 




Si~ii 



.ip 



CU J-^ercent oP pupt^3 in each aro<te rha-r arf^ 
l/ni1cra<fc / / / 

£) i^isrr'i'ur'on oC 'underage' pupJs m r^e 



Considering now the overage pupils we find that the lowest rate of 
overage is found in the lA, with 14.3%. From Figure 7 we see that the 
rate rises until it reaches the peak or maximum in 6A, with 42.1%, and 
then falls away until it reaches the 8B, with 26.5%. If ^ve include the 
9th and 10th year classes, we see that the rate of overage is lower than 
in the regular elementary grades. It is to be noted that, with few excep- 
tions, the A grades have a higher rate than the B grades. The excep- 
tions are the 1st and 8th years. 

The lower half of Figure 7 shows what percentage of all overage 
pupils are found in each grade. The curve rises slowly and quite regu- 

29 



larly from the lA, with 3%, to the 6A, with 8%, and then drops to the 
8B, where it is 3.4%. 




COfhpcenr of pupi/s m each ^.-^jde ryhoapeovepaee. 
J3)/^kpcenr of a// ot'eraae pufl//i ',? ca c/) G/Kide. 



Figure 8 shows in one diagram the proportion of underage, normal 
age and overage in each grade. 



UnJe 



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30 



(c) 



BY SEX 



Table VIII shows for each grade the percentage of boys and girls 
in each age grade classification. It is compiled from the detailed age 
distributions for both sexes that are shown in the appendix (Tables LXII 
and LXIII). 



TABLE VIII- 



-PERCEXTAGE OF UNDERAGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVERAGE BOYS AND 
GIRLS IN EACH GRADE 



Grade 


Underage 


Normal Age 


Overage 




Boys 


Giil.s 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


lA 


26.5 
28.8 
19.8 
24.7 
21.0 
23.5 
21.7 
23.0 
21.2 
23.1 
22.0 
23.6 
24.3 
24.8 
30.9 
34.2 
55.6 
69.5 
46.1 
51.8 


28.6 
29.S 
22.3 
27.3 
23.6 
26.6 
23.5 
26.9 
23.8 
26.2 
24.5 
26.4 
25.7 
27.2 
32.5 
34.1 
57.4 
64.4 
53.8 
44.8 


59.6 
53.4 
53.4 
49.1 
47.9 
45.3 
41.8 
41.2 
38.0 
37.8 
35.1 
34.5 
34.8 
38.6 
36.7 
39.2 
29.9 
23.2 
30.8 
33.3 


57.9 
54.1 
54.0 
50.1 
49.1 
46.6 
43.9 
42.2 
40.6 
38.7 
37.0 
37.5 
36.9 
38.3 
37.1 
40.2 
29.7 
26.1 
40.4 
41.8 


13.9 
17.8 
26.8 
26.2 
31.1 
31.1 
36.5 
35.8 
40.7 
■39.0 
42.9 
40.5 
40.9 
36.6 
32.4 
26.6 
13.4 
7.3 
23.1 
14.8 


13 5 


IB 


16 1 


2A 


23 7 


2B 


22 5 


3A 


27 2 


3B 


26 8 


4A 


30 ,5 


4B. . . 


30 9 


5A 


35 6 


5B : 


35 1 


6A 


38 5 


6B 


36 1 


7A 


37 5 


7B 


34 5 


8A 


30 4 


8B 


25 6 


9A 


12 9 


9B .. 


94 


lOA 


5 8 


lOB. 


13 4 






Total ... . 


24.8 


27.2 


43.6 


44.4 


31.6 


28 4 







prcq 



^.fupf. 9 Pe/>ce/>Jifi cf ioyi ^,nA qirll ti inch (^rtiie 
v.ho dpe undefaoe. nopaal a<ft and dvej-afz 



Boys ■ 




"55 5b 



TB IT 



■3S ^B Sa 



"55 55 iS" 



31 



It shows that 27.2% of the girls are underage as compared with 
24.8% of the boys, that 44.4% of the girls are "at age," while 43.6% of 
the boys are of normal age, and lastly that 31.6% of the boys are overage • 
as compared to 28.4% of the girls. In other words, to every 100 boys 
who are und'erage, there are 110 girls, to every 100 boys that are of normal 
age there are approximately 102 girls, while to every 100 boys that are 
overage there are only 90 girls. 

In every one of the lA to 8B grades, but the 8B, the girls show a 
greater percentage of underage pupils. In every one of the lA to 8B 
grades but the lA and 7B, the girls show the larger percentage of normal 
pupils, while on the other hand, in every one of the lA to 8B grades the 
boys show the higher percentage of overage. The girls show throughout 
a much more satisfactory condition with reference to age and grade. 

(d) BY SCHOOLS 

Table IX presents a distribution of all elementary schools in the 
City according to their percentages of underage, normal age and overage 
pupils. The wide range of difference between schools is noticeable. One 
school shows more than 70% of overage pupils while another shows less 
than 5%. The median of the group is 31.6%. This means that there 
are as many schools whose rates of overageness exceed as there are schools 
whose rates fall below that percentage. In the appendix detailed data 
are presented showing the percentages of overageness and retardation for 
each school and school district. 



TABLE IX— DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO PERCENT- 
AGE OF UNDERAGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVERAGE PUPILS 



Per cent 


Underage 


Normal age 


Overage 


91-95 


1 

1 

5 

20 

56 

109 

118 

103 

41 

10 

6 


1 

3 

23 

102 

186 

120 

25 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 


9* 


86-90 


2t 


81-85 


76-80 




71-75 


It 


66-70 


61-65 




56-60. - 


2 


51-55 

46-50 ;. . 


8 
17 


41-45..-. 


42 


36-40 


81 


31-35 


90 


26-30 


110 


21-25 .;. 


84 


16-20 


25 


11-15 


3 


6-10 


2 


1-5 


1 






Total 


470 

24.2% 


470 

43.2% 


470 




31.6% 







* Probationary schools. t One school for overage pupils. J School in Colored Orphan Asylum. 

The wide range of differences in rates of underageness and overage- 
ness between schools may be, probably are, indications of the existing 
differences in character of the pupil population. They may be in part due 

32 



to the effective work done by some district superintendents and principals 
in studying the problem and in applying whatever remedial measures 
are available. The existing variability should not, however, be assumed 
to indicate that the school with a large percentage of overage pupils is 
not handling its problem effectively. It may be that the school with the 
large rate is doing more effective work than the school with a lower rate. 
The factors involved in the situation in each individual school are not 
shown in the tables. 

To the principal, however, belongs the responsibility of improving 
conditions. A laissez faire policy, which regards the age-grade reports 
as simply officially required statistical data of no interest nor value locally, 
and which, therefore, provides neither discussion with teachers of the 
particular conditions revealed, no further analysis of the data nor any 
consideration of the possible remedies that may be applied, will certainly 
not improve conditions. That conditions in a school can be improved, 
the experience of many of our progressive principals has abundantly 
demonstrated. Whether conditions in a school grow ])etter or not is a 
question of supervision by those in charge. 

6. Causes of 0\erageness in Elementary Schools 

Age-grade status or the relation of the age of a given pupil to the 
grade entered or completed has been generally considered a measure of 
the school progress of such pupil. Our age-grade standards set up cer- 
tain ages for reaching given grades. An overage pupil accordingly is a 
pupil who has not arrived at a given point according to schedule. Before 
the school can move to bring such pupil up to grade or to apply proper 
treatment it is essential to determine the causes of the condition. 

A pupil who reaches the 5A grade at the age of 12 is overage to the 
extent of two years according to the standard age limits (10 to 11) fixed 
for entrance into that grade. In other words, according to the school 
standards set up such a pupil should be entering the 7 A grade and he 
is therefore "below grade" for his age. If we consider the causes that 
may have operated in this pupil's case to make him late by two years 
in reaching his present grade, we can readily see that it may be because 
he started late or because he progressed slowly, or he may have started 
late and also have progressed slowly. In other words, overageness is 
due to (a) late entrance upon school, (6) slow progress or retardation, or 
(c) late entrance combined with retardation. 

Our age-grade standards are based on the assumption that all pupils 
enter the first grade of school between six and seven. It is to be pointed 
out that our standards fix six as the lower age limit for entering the lA, 
while our Compulsory Education Laws prescribe seven as the compul- 
sory age for entrance upon school Our laws do not agree with our stand- 
ards nor with our experience. For the most part our pupils do enter 
school around six. On the other hand, athough our by-laws prohibit 
the admission of pupils in the lA before the age of six, large numljers in 
one way or another are enrolled at the ages of five or five and a half. 
For instance, at the beginning of the school term under consideration 
there were reported as entering school (grade lA) without previous 
instruction 30,711 children. Of these pupils, 12,649 or 41.2% were below 
six. Such pupils were underage according to our grade standards. 
16,037, or 52.2%, were between six and seven and so were of normal 
age, and 2,025, or 6.6%, were more than seven years of age and there- 

3.3 



TABLE X— PERCENTAGE OF OVERAGE PUPILS ACCORDING TO CAUSE 





Number of 
overage pupils 


Percent, op ovebage dub to 


Grade 


Late entrance 


Slow progress 


Late entrance and 
slow progress 


lA - 

IB _ 

2A .. 


6,418 

10,545 

11,402 

12,701 

13,211 

13,946 

14,976 

15,555 

16,734 

16,573 

16,960 

16,243 

15,883 

12,776 

10,647 

■ 7,618 

684 

330 

12 

13 


31.55 
45.78 
22.54 
27.11 
17.37 
20.01 
13.02 
16.91 
13.09 
14.27 
10.84 
13.62 
12..52 
16.04 
16.52 
21.85 
30.41 
40.00 
16.67 
53.85 


42.47 
41.40 
58.86 
57.80 
65.21 
62.72 
68.20 
65.19 
67.26 
67.09 
69.91 
69.24 
69.68 
70.08 
70.53 
67.79 
59.21 
48.79 
83.33 
30.77 


25.97 
12.81 
18.60 


2B 


15.09 


3A 


17.42 


3B 


17.27 


4A 


18.77 


4B 


17.90 


5A 


19.64 


5B 

6A 


18.64 
19.25 


6B . 


17.14 


7A 


17.80 


7B 


13.89 


8A . -.- 


12.95 


SB 


10.36 


9A 


10.38 


9B _ 

lOA _ 

lOB 


11.21 
15.38 






Total . - . 


213,227 


18.27 


64.54 


17.19 







iOO 



QO 



i ^k^^:^^^i^S^:^^ii^:>^^^^^^ 




n. n> if'GUPe iO. , 

I-BP'zentc^ovepaGenes^ /n each GPode caused l?</ /ate entpance-retapdat/on 

and Jii^ /ate entPance QMd petupdat/o/i co/nl>/^eG/. ^2r 

34 



fore were overage. The overage pupils, assiuning that they make normal 
progress through the grades, will be overage pupils throughout the course. 
If they lose time anywheres through failure, their overageness will be 
therebj^ increased. 

The new form of blank used in our surve}^ permitted an analysis of 
the cases of the 213,227 overage pupils reported so that the causes for 
their overage status were readily determinable. Table X shows for each 
grade the percentages of the overage pupils that were overage because 
they entered school late, because they made slow progress, or because 
they both entered late and progressed slowly. For instance, of every 
hundred overage pupils beginning the lA grade on February 1st, thirty- 
two were overage because of late entrance, they were entering later than 
seven years okl, the upper age limit for such grade; fort3''-two were 
overage because they had not made normal progress. These pupils had 
already been in school one or more terms and were repeating the grade 
work. Twenty-six of every hundred had entered late and had also failed 
of promotion. 

In the 3B grade for instance, there were almost 14,000 overage 
pupils. Of these, 2,791, or 20%, were overage because of late entrance. 
That is, one out of every five overage pupils in this grade had made 
progress at a normal or more rapid than normal rate. As far as school 
instruction is concerned these children are normal. On the other hand, 
more than three out of every five (62.7%) had failed one or more times, 
so that, while they had entered at the normal age, this failure had retarded 
their progress and they are now overage. About one out of every six 
(17.3%) had entered late and were overage at beginning, and this over- 
ageness was increased by one or more failures throughout their school 
experience to date. Similarly with the other grades. 

For all grades combined the table shows that late entrance was 
responsible for 18.3% of the overage pupils, slow progress or retardation 
was the cause of 64.5%, while to late entrance and slow progress com- 
bined was due 17.2% of the overageness. It appears then, that, for the 
great majority, probably about 70%, overage signifies slow progress or 
actual retardation. 



7. Age-Grade Distribution of High School Pupils 

Table XI gives a distribution of the pupils on register in high schools 
on February 28th, according to their ages and grades. The totals in 
the column to the right show how many pupils of each age there are in 
high schools, while the totals across the bottom of the table show the 
number of pupils in each high school grade. 

Figure 11 shows tlie distribution of high school pupils according 
to age. It reads: out of every thousand pupils. 1 is eleven 3'ears old, 
23 are twelve j^ears of age, 153 are thirteen, and 292 are fourteen, antl 
so on, clown to 22 who are eighteen, 5 nineteen, and 3 who are twenty 
years and over. 

The age standards fixed for entering the successive high school grades 
are shown in Table XI by the heavy lines running in steps down across 
the page. The standard for entering high school, first term, is from 14 
to 15, and the second term from 143^2 to 153^, etc. Above the heav)'- 
lines the figures show those pupils who are underage for their grade, 

35 



TABLE XI- 



-DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN HIGH SCHOOL ACCORDING TO AGES AND 
GRADES— FEBRUARY 28, 1921 



Ages 


lA 


IB 


2A 


2B 


3A 


3B 


4A 


4B 


5A 


Total 


Under IIJ^ 


9 

54 

317 

959 

2,415 

4,014 


8 

15 

87 

314 

1,073 

2,184 

3,416 


2 
3 

22 

106 

532 

1,187 

2,401 

2,926 


1 
3 
11 

86 

316 

916 

1,628 

2,388 


1 

3 

11 

43 

207 

559 

1,297 

1,591 


2 

14 

66 

223 

618 

1,155 

1,539 


1 

1 
6 
38 
166 
408 
697 
794 


1 

1 

6 

27 

95 

235 

539 

721 

860 


1 

3 

6 

8 

15 

24 

50 

38 


19 


llj^ to 12 


73 


12 to 12J^ 


430 


121^ to 13 


1,394 


13 to 13M 


4,120 


13K to 14 ■ 


7,760 






14 to 141^ 


4,142 
2,846 


11,161 






14M to 15 


3,273 
1,963 


11,523 






15 to 151^ ..... 


1,743 

834 

417 

156 

70 

24 

11 

9 

1 

1 

8 

18,030 


2,568 
1,608 


10,844 




15}i to 16 


1,088 

594 

242 

126 

42 

40 

13 

4 

4 

15 

14,501 


2,186 
1,364 


9,113 






16 to 16^ 


951 

463 

257 

102 

37 

13 

13 

2 

14 

13,207 


1,491 
920 


7,607 


16Ji to 17 


752 

402 

187 

80 

36 

22 

9 

28 

10,415 


1,206 

783 


5,278 




17 to 17}^ 


507 

262 

133 

54 

24 

7 

23 

7,133 


696 

476 


3,751 




173^ to 18 


421 
190 
87 
28 
13 
29 

6,374 


692 

425 


2,244 




18 to 181^ 


217 

116 

64 

22 

31 

?,733 


26 
13 


1,159 




1834 to 19 .... 


210 

136 

46 

50 

4,044 


551 






19 to 1914 


10 

2 

15 

211 


302 


19K to 20 


106 


20 and over 

Total 


213 

77,648 




Lower quartile 


yr. mo. 

13 7 

14 2 
14 9 


yr. mo. 
14 
14 6 

14 8 


yr. mo. 
14 4 

14 11 

15 6 


yr. mo, 

14 11 

15 6 

16 1 


yr. rno. 
15 4 

15 11 

16 7 


yr. mo. 

15 9 

16 4 

17 


yr. mo. 
16 3 

16 10 

17 6 


yr. mo. 

16 7 

17 3 
17 10 


yr. mo. 

16 11 

17 6 

18 3 




Upper quartile 





TABLE XII- 



-NUMBER OF PUPILS UNDERAGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVERAGE IN 
HIGH SCHOOLS 









Underage 








OVEH.AGE 








Total 
Num- 












Nor- 
mal 


































Grade 


ber 


3yrs. 






1 year 




age 




] year 






3yrs. 




of 


and 


2-3 


1-2 


and 


Total 




Total 


and 


1-2 


2-3 


and 




pupils 


over 


years 


years 


less 








less 


years 


years 


over 


lA 


18,030 




63 


1,276 


6,429 


7,768 


6,988 


3,274 


2,577 


573 


94 


30 


IB 


14,501 


8 


102 


1,387 


5,600 


7,097 


5,236 


2,168 


1,682 


368 


82 


36 


2A 


13,207 





128 


1,719 


5,327 


7,179 


4,176 


1,852 


1,414 


359 


50 


29 


2B 


10,415 


4 


97 


1,232 


4,016 


5,349 


3,550 


1,516 


1,154 


267 


58 


37 


3A 


7,133 


4 


54 


766 


2,888 


3,712 


2,411 


1,010 


769 


187 


31 


23 


3B 


6,374 


2 


80 


841 


2,694 


3,617 


1,989 


768 


611 


115 


42 




4A 


3,733 


2 


44 


574 


1,491 


2,111 


1,172 


450 


333 


86 


31 




4B 


4,044 


8 


122 


774 


1,581 


2,485 


1,117 


442 


346 


96 






5A 


211 


4 


14 


39 


88 


145 


39 


27 


12 


15 






Total 


77,648 


37 


704 


8,608 


30,114 


39,463 


26,678 


11,507 


8,898 


2,066 


388 


155 



36 



between the lines are reported the normal age pupils, while below the lines 
the entries represent the overage pupils. 

Table XII shows ih condensed form the same table. It shows the 
number of pupils in each grade who are underage, at normal age and 
overage for their grades. Table XIII shows the above-mentioned data 
in percentage form. 

From the tables it appears that out of the 77,648 pupils in high 
school, 39,463, or a little more than half, are underage, that 11,507, or 
34.35%, are of normal age, while only 14.8%" are overage. In other 
words, out of every 100 high school pupils 51 are underage, 34 are normal, 
and 15 are overage. To every 10 overage pupils there are 23 normal 
and 34 undierage pupils. 



23 



153 



im 



■257 



14.6 



77 



i2 



a 12. 13 14- 15 lb 
andundc i/ed/'S 



ir IS rq 10 

oP age. ' aM over 



t^/GUpe. 11 



AJ/syp'tuTion 0/" J7/s/} icboo/ pupi/s per- 
jnousand accopd/no yo a<^e. 



TABLE XIII— PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS UNDERAGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVERAGE 

IN HIGH SCHOOLS 





Underage 


Nor- 
mal 
age 


Overage 


Grade 


3 years 
and 
over 


2-3 

years 


1-2 
years 


1 year 
and 
less 


Total 


Total 


1 year 
and 
less 


1-2 

years 


2-3 

years 


3 years 
and 
over 


lA 


0.05 
0.03 
0.03 
0.05 
0.03 
0.05 
0.19 
1.89 


0.34 
0.70 
0.97 
0.93 
0.75 
1.23 
1.17 
3.01 
6.63 


7.07 
9.56 
13.01 
11.82 
10.73 
13.19 
15.37 
19.11 
18.48 


35.65 
38.61 
40.30 
38.55 
40.48 
42.26 
39.94 
39.09 
41.71 


43.08 
48.94 
54.35 
51.35 
52.03 
56.74 
56.54 
61.44 
68.70 


38.75 
36.10 
31.61 
34.08 
33.80 
31.20 
31.39 
27.64 
18.48 


18.15 
14.95 
14.02 
14.55 
14.15 
12.04 
12.05 
10.92 
12.79 


14.29 

11.59 

10.70 

11.08 

10.78 

9.58 

8.91 

8.55 

5.68 


3.17 
2.53 

2.72 
2.56 
2.62 
1.80 
2.30 
2.37 
7.10 


0.52 
0.56 
0.37 
0,55 
0.43 
0.65 
0.83 


0.15 


IB . 


0.24 


2A 


0.21 


2B 


0.35 


3A 


0.32 


3B . . . 




4A 




4B 




5A 










0.04 


0.90 


11.08 


38.78 


50.82 


34.35 


14.81 


11.45 


2.66 


0.49 


0.19 



^E SA 




The first term shows the lowest rate of underage pupils and the 
highest percentage of normal age and overage pupils. The rate of under- 
age gradually increases upward through the grades, reaching the peak 
in the last grade. The percentage of normal age gradually decreases 
upward through the course, reaching its lowest point in the last grade. 
The rate of overage similarly decreases upward through the course until 

38 



it reaches the lowest rate in the hist grade. It is to be noted that the 
number of pupils in the successive grades decreases rapidly. The great- 
est elimination is in the overage, the next is in the normal, while the 
underage are retained in school to the greatest extent. 

For all practical purposes the underage pupils may be considered 
to be the brightest pupils. The fact that, while elimination effects all 
three groups or classes of pupils, it shows the least effect upon the accel- 
erated, may have some significance as indicating the type of pupil most 
suited or fitted for the average high school courses. 

8. Significance of Overageness 

The outstanding fact revealed by the data presented in the fore- 
going sections is the variability in ages of pupils in the several grades. 
Pupils of all ages are found in almost all grades, and a range of more 
than ten years exists in each one of the grades. In the lower grades of 
the elementary school are to be found many relatively "old" pupils actu- 
ally adolescent, while in the high school grades there are many less than 
fourteen years of age. A grade, for a large proportion of the pupils 
involved, does not mean a certain age. On the other hand, if inquiry is 
made as to the location of our ten-year-olds or our twelve-year-olds we 
cannot assume that they are to be found in the fifth or seventh school 
grades respectively. Figures 13 and 14 and Tables I and III show such 
pupils are scattered from the lowest grades to the highest. There are 
far more pupils out of the grades for which these ages are normal than 
there are in such grades. While such conditions have been revealed by 
every age-grade census, yet their common occurrence does not or should 
not take away from their educational significance. In addition to the 
difficulties created by such wide differences in ages of pupils within a 
grade in planning work to suit the needs and powers of the group, the 



^S=^^ 



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20 



31 



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106 



l§fo 



107 



221- 



3'/Gupe.iT). 
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hofe T&n ucaps ts j-h&no/'jnaJ 
age. J'oa e/ipiance upon jh&. 
fifrh qfcude. 



ioq 



55 



12 



ihl^ 



Ik Ih SA 3& 4A 4ii 5A 5B l.k 



39 



presence of so many comparatively old pupils in the lower grades has a 
more vital significance. This may be seen in an analj^sis of the twelve- 
year-old group. 

In the regular grades there were some eighty thousand pupils twelve 
years old. Table XIV shows how they were distributed from the lA 
grade, which had 66, to the 9B, which had 393. The table also shows 
the percentage of the total number found in each group. The table 
also shows the age such pupils would be upon completing the 8B grade, 
assuming that such pupils would make normal progress, an assumption 
that is probably not altogether valid. The twelve-year-olds in the lA 
would be past twenty, those in the IB would be older than nineteen and 
one-half, those in the 2 A would be past nineteen, and so on. When we 
look at Table I we find that there are no twenty-year-old pupils in the 
8B grade and few nineteen- or eighteen-year-olds. Pupils do not stay 
until they reach that age — they drop out generally after fourteen and 
fifteen. 

TABLE XIV— DISTRIBUTION OF TWELVE-YEAR-OLD PUPILS BY GRADES 



Grade 


Number 


Percent 


Cumulative 
Percent 


Age on 
Reaching 

7A 


Age on 

completing 

SB 


Grade 

reached 

at 16 


lA 


66 

86 

179 

288 

400 

1,032 

1,829 

3,089 

4,852 

6,664 

9,135 

11,908 

14.836 

14,297 

9,357 

3,886 

1,019 

393 


0.08 

0.11 

0.22 

0.35 

0.48 

1.25 

2.20 

3.71 

5.83- 

7.99 

10.96 

14.28 

17.79 

17.14 

11.23 

4.67 

1.23 

0.48 


0.08 

0.19 

0.41 

0.76 

1.24 

2.49 

4.69 

8.40 

14.23 

22.22 

33.18 

47.46 

65.25 

82.39 

93.62 

98.29 

99.52 

100.00 


18 

171^ 

17 

16>^ 

16 

15K 

15 

14)^ 

14 

13 

12}^ 
12 


20 

193i 

19 

ISJ^ 

18 

17,1^ 

17 

16',^ 

16 

loM 

15 

14 

13M 

13 

12M 


5A 


IB 


5B 


2A 


6A 


2B 


•6B 


3A . 


7A 


3B 


7B 


4A - 

4B 


SA 
8B 


5A 


9A 


5B 


9B 


6A 




6B 




7A 




7B 




8A .- 




SB - 




9A - '.'... 




9B - 








Total _ 


83,416 


100.00 















The Compulsory Education Law requires that pupils must be fifteen 
years and have completed the 7A grade before they may leave school 
It also provides that pupils may leave at the age of sixteen, regardless 
of the grades reached. If we take this into consideration we may see 
from Table XIV that practically 4,000 of our present twelve-year-olds, 
or 4.69% of the total number, will be fifteen or older when they reach 
the 7A and, therefore, will find it possible to leave school. The chances 
are, too, that most, if not all, will avail themselves of the opportunity. 
Many of these will become sixteen and will drop out before they reach 
the 7A. The last column shows that the 66 pupils in the lA will reach 
the 5A at age 16, the 86 in the IB will get to the 5B, those in the 2A will 
reach the 6A, while those in the 2B will get as far as 6B. 

40 



i7fi 



143 



110 



&U 



56 



IT" 



11 



37 



iklk ZZ 3A 35 4A 45 5A SB bA 



3'lGUPC i4- 

J)isj'pi6uj-ion of JT^vs-Y^''^ 
olds pepj-housomd 5fspadei. 

flofe. Tw&Jve v&cps is 
j£& nopmal a^&Pop fhe. 

7vi np'^dO: 



iVl 



112 



7A 75 



47 

66 ^A 



Table XV presents data taken from Table I to show for the over- 
age pupils in grades lA to 8B, the grades which may possibly be com- 
pleted by such pupils at the age of sixteen provided they remain in school 
until that age and provided they make normal progress. The law per- 
mits a child to leave school at sixteen regardless of the grade reached. 
It permits him to leave at fifteen if he has completed the 6B grade. 

The table shows in column 1 that at date of report there are 2,462 
pupils sixteen years and over who are scattered from the lA to 8B grades. 
About three-fourths of these are found in the seventh and eighth years. 
The remaining six hundred are in the lower grades and in all probability 
will drop out of school ere long without progressing much further beyond 
their present grades. For those overage pupils who at date are less than 
sixteen, the tal)le reads as follows: There are now in the lA grade 4 
pupils who will finish the lA by the age of sixteen, 12 who will complete 
the IB, 13 the 2A, 17 the 2B grade, etc. Similarly for the succeeding 
grades. 

The table assumes optimum conditions. First that all pupils will 
be retained in school. Actually many pupils leave school at fifteen if 
they have reached the 7A grade. Secondly, the table assumes normal 
progress upon the part of these overage pupils. While normal progress 
and even rapid progress is possible, it has been seen that most of our 
overage pupils are overage because of their slow progress. The table 
then makes assumptions that view conditions in the most favorable light. 
Even under such favorable assumptions it is seen from the table that 
thousands of our overage pupils will never reach the 7th year at sixteen, 
much less complete the 8B. It means then that thousands of our pupils 
will be eliminated without completing the elementary course and will 
drop out of school with a fifth or sixth year education. 

41 















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43 



Table XVI presents an analysis of the situation from another angle. 
It shows for all the overage pupils in the lA to 8B grades the ages of 
such pupils if they were to remain in school until they completed the 
8B grade and if they were to make normal progress. The figures in the 
last column on the right show a cumulative total. It shows that of the 
overage pupils, 94,530 will be sixteen and over if they remain long enough 
to complete the 8B, that 36,397 will be seventeen or older, and that 
13,223 will be eighteen and older. 

Inspection of Table I shows that the number of pupils sixteen and 
older is comparatively small. Pupils do not remain much beyond fifteen 
or sixteen, so that the chances of the 13,000 who will be eighteen and 
over upon completion of the SB grade to obtain an elementary educa- 
tion are practically nil. The chances of the 23,000 who will be seven- 
teen are likewise negligible. 

The significance then that the presence of so many "old" children 
in the lower grades has for educational administration lies in the fact 
that, while in a certain sense it is a partial measure of the progress of 
pupils in the past, it is a more accurate index of the probable elimina- 
tion of pupils in the future. While the displacement of pupils with ref- 
erence to age and grade gives us a measure of the past success, or rather 
lack of success, of the school in adjusting its efforts to the needs of the 
pupils, it also points out forcibly the urgent necessity of such adjust- 
me~nt, and it raises serious question as to the validity of the assumptions 
that underlie our present system of school organization and grading. 



44 



Ill— RATES OF PROGRESS THROUGH THE GRADES 

The foregoing section of the report has presented the conditions 
existing with reference to the relation between the ages of pupils and 
their grades. The determination of such age-grade status results from 
the application of age-grade standards that are based solely upon chron- 
ological age. The use of such age standards as a measure of pupils' 
progress or retardation is an essential element in the scheme of chrono- 
logical grading which has prevailed to date. It assumes that overage- 
ness is synonymous with backwardness or i-etardation, and that an under- 
age pupil is always an accelerated or bright pupil, and that chronolog- 
ical age is in all cases a function of mental age or ability. 

Objection against the application of the age standard to measure 
retardation was raised by some educators years ago when age-grade 
statistics first became the vogue. Superintendent James M. Green- 
wood, of Kansas City, in the September, 1908, number of the Educa- 
tional Review, voiced his criticism as follows: 

"The only correct way to estimate retardation or the slow movement of a 
pupil is the length of time it takes him to do a year's work. It is not a question 
of age without respect to progress but it is one of time required to do a given amount 
of work within a specified time without regard to age. Suppose two boys enter 
college, one sixteen and the other nineteen years old and each one completes the 
four years' work on time. Now would anyone claim that the older boy was 
retarded? So, if a child begins the regular grade work at eight, and he does a 
full year's work each year till he completes the elementary course, that child is not 
retarded and it would be puerile to class him as a backward pupil. The only clear 
cases of retardation are those in which pupils are kept longer on a certain unit of 
work than is prescribed in the course of study." 

Others also argued in favor of the adoption of progress as the cri- 
terion of retardation. As will be shown in a later section, a child of 
normal age does not always mean a child who has made normal progress, 
neither does an underage pupil always mean an accelerated or bright 
pupil, nor an overage pupil a backward pupil. To the extent to which 
the assumptions underlying the classification according to age-grade 
status are incorrect, age-grade statistics fail to reveal the actual condi- 
tions that obtain with reference to the progress of pupils. 

Age-grade statistics should then be supplemented b}^ a study of the 
rates of progress of pupils through the school. Such a study depends 
upon the maintenance of adequate pupils' records, and it was the inade- 
quacy of such records years ago, coupled with the fact that age-grade 
statistics required only a minimum of effort involved in determining the 
ages of pupils according to grade, that led at that time to the adoption 
of the age standard as a measure of retardation. New York City 
schools, however, have maintained permanent or continuous pupils' 
records for some time past so that the necessary data for a progress 
study were available. 

The report blank used in the present survey (see p. 63) accordingly 
made provision for the reporting of the number of pupils in each grade 
according to the number of terms they had been in school up to the date 
of entrance upon their present grades. Particular stress was placed in 

45 



the instructions to teachers that care be exercised by them in deter- 
nrining from the record cards the number of terms the pupil had been 
in school. It was recognized that, in view of the fact that many of the 
pupils were foreigners who had had some degree of schooling in their 
native countries and that many pupils entered our schools from out- 
of-town school systems, numbers of our pupils would have incomplete 
or broken records. A "no complete data" column was provided on the 
blank and no attempt was made to include such pupils in the classifica- 
tion by terms. Over twenty thousand pupils were so recorded, almost 
3% of the entire number reported upon. 

1. Distribution of Pupils According to Terms Spent in School 

Table XVII shows a distribution of the pupils in each grade accord- 
ing to the time they have taken to reach such grade as measured by the 
number of terms of instruction they had had up to February 1st, the 
date of entrance upon their present grades. The table reads as follows: 
In the lA there were, out of 46,838 pupils reported upon, 30,711 who 
entered on February 1st without any previous instruction, 14,248 who 
had been in school one term, 1,334 two terms, 403 three terms, and so_. 
on down to one who had been under instruction twelve terms. In the 
IB, out of the 62,126 pupils who entered the grade on February 1st, 
400 had spent no time in school prior to entrance, 47,202 had been in 
school one term, 8,611 had spent two terms in school, 4,313 three terms, 
and so on down to 3 pupils who had been in school ten terms. 



46 



















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47 



DISrBIBUriOi OP rJ?Ii3 IB R/:iTULiH 
13 3CH'VTI, 



The total column on the right shows the number of pupils in all 
grades for each number of terms. The total at the bottom shows the 
number of pupils in each grade reported upon. Figure 15 shows the 
number of pupils (per 1,000) according to the time they have spent in 
school. It reads as follows: 44 out of every thousand were beginners, 
91 had spent one term in school, 46 had been two terms in school, 78 
had been three terms, 47 four terms, and so on up to 3 out of every 
thousand who had spent twenty or more terms in school. 



2. Standard Rates of Progress 



The elementary course consists of sixteen grades, each of which 
constitutes one term or half year of school. A pupil entering the 8B 
grade or the sixteenth grade, if he has advanced regularly and has been 
promoted at each promotion period, will have spent fifteen terms in 
school. Such a pupil will have made normal progress. If a pupil has 
taken less than fifteen terms to reach the SB his progress will have been 
rapid, while a pupil who has required more than fifteen terms to do the 
work of fifteen terms will have made slow progress. Similarly with the 
other grades. A pupil making normal progress will reach the IB grade 
after one term of school, the 2A after two terms, the 2B after three 
terms, the 3A after four terms, and so on. The pupils may, therefore, 
be divided into three classifications according to their progress, i. e., 
normal progress, slow progress and rapid progress. 

48 



Tho standard rates o^ progress are indicated in Talkie XVII by the 
heavy black Hnes running in steps downward across the table. The 
pupils in any grade column reported within the heavy lines have made 
normal progress, those in the column above the standard lines have made 
rapid progress, and those reported in such column below the standard 
lines have made slow progress and are retarded. 

The table also shows by means of the standard lines how many of 
the pupils in any "time" group who have spent the same length of time 
in school are slow progress, normal progress and rapid progress. For 
instance, those pupils on any given line in the table who are reported 
to the left of the standard line are retarded or have made slow progress, 
those between the heavy lines are normal progress and those to the right 
are rapid progress pupils. 

Under our present system of pupil grading the standards set up 
are uniform for all pupils in the regular grades. This assumes a uni- 
formity in ability which experience fails to verify. While a later sec- 
tion raises some questions as to the validity of the use of uniform stand- 
ards as measures of progress for all children, the lack of other standards 
makes it necessary to adhere to traditional practice in this respect. 



14^ 



Z5 



130 



33d. 



3'iGUPc M 
D/si^/hpon OF cvepu 

jhpiisand. pupils in epade 

d& accordino jv rh& numkp 

oF jzPTns in' school. 



1(d1 



150 



36 



^1 



11 1^ 13 H 15 It, 17 ,16, 11 20 
-r%Ti je.Pms in school 7^/^/ 



49 



3. Variability in the Rates of Progress 

Inspection of Table XVII shows the greatest variabihty in the rates 
of progress made by children in the same g^-ade. Grade 8B, column 17, 
shows, for instance, that there were 3 pupils who had been in school 
but six terms, 6 pupils had spent seven terms in school, 8 had been in 
school eight terms, and so on down to 4, who had been in school twenty- 
four terms or twelve years. Figure 16, which presents the above data 
for the SB grade reduced to a percentage basis, shows that out of every 
thousand pupils who entered the SB grade 14 had been in school eleven 
terms or less, 23 had been in school twelve terms; 8S, thirteen terms; 
130, fourteen terms; 338, fifteen terms; 161, sixteen terms, and so on 
up to 21 who had received twenty or more terms of schooling. Figure 
17 shows similar data for the 3B. Four pupils per thousand had been 
in school two terms or less; 13, three terms; 57, four terms; 503, five 
terms; 158, six terms, and so on up to 5 who had received thirteen 
terms or more of schooling. 



151 



40 



IThgT-Tr- 



JIu'^piiujioD Of" pupils in evEPif pJiousand '/> srade 
Sp aceofdi/io to papois apJjaP ieapj a schoo/ 



The same variability in progress is seen when we examine the grades 
attained by the pupils who have spent the same length of tune in school. 
Taking the group who at February 1st, 1921, had spent ten terms or 
five years in school. This group, numbering 34,201, started school at the 



50 



same time five years ago and if they had all made normal progress they 
would all be in the 6A grade. Instead, as shown in Figure 18, we find 
them distributed from the 2A to the 8B grades. Out of every thousand 
such pupils there are 4 who have not passed the 2B grade, 9 who have 
reached the 3A, 24 the 3B grade, and so on up to 304 who have reached 
the 6A the grade which pupils with ten terms of schooling should reach. 
Some have gone beyond this, 108 out of every thousand reaching the 
6B, 46 the 7A, and so on up to 4 who have reached the highest grade 
in the elementary course. Out of every thousand 518 are "below grade," 
304 are "at grade" and 176 are "above grade." 




§0 



2.b' 3A 3& 4A 
and 



45 



156 



^Ob 



5M 



'm 



36ap& id 
^/sfpiiupon oCpuD/fs 
ouf o/ evepij fJioasoJid. 
who md spenj yen 
jepms OP haJf yeaps 
in school accopdinG 
-fo spaois j>eached. 



TK 



106 



W 



4(9 



QPadp. Penr.he.d.. 



7k Y5 Ck OD 



Consider the number who had been in school sixteen or more terms 
or eight years, the "normal" time required to finish the elementary 
course. Disregarding those who were in grades above the 8B and had 
therefore completed the elementary course, we find 40,319 pupils who 
had not completed the course. Such pupils were distributed in the 
grades from 2B to the 8B. As Figure 19 shows, out of every thousand 
such pupils 7 had not completed the 4B, 14 were in the 5 A, 29 in the 
5B, 52 in the 6A, and so on up to 295 who were in the 8B. 

51 



J)/sjpihuTion amonajhe. spades Q5to66) 
oF pupils who A are. had ^/xpeen or more 
jerms oP schoolinG. 



r ~r 



Z6-4B 



l'\ 



II 



5b lok 



lib 



lt4- 



E30 



m 



5A 



tB 



7A 



7& 



In calling attention to the variability in progress as shown in the 
table, it is not the intention to give the impression that there is no rela- 
tion between the number of. terms spent in school and grades attained 
or completed. On the contrary, despite the variability shown b}^ extreme 
cases there is a close relationship between these two elements. This is 
to be expected inasmuch as the underlying plan of the school system 
provides that pupils advance one grade each term. 

A measure of such relationship is obtainable by determining for 
the distributions in the table the coefficient of correlation. If every 
child advanced one grade each term the coefficient of correlation would 
be 1.00, that is perfect correspondence. This, however, is ideal for we 
realize that many pupils fail for one reason or another to progress 
regularly. 

In computing the coefficient of correlation for the distributions in 
Table XVII the quantities in such table were reduced for the purpose 
of simplifying the calculations by dividing each number by 100 and dis- 
carding fractions less than five-tenths. The formula proposed by Ayres 
was employed. This formula, which provides a shorter method than 
that customarily employed, is as follows: 

Sum of products of subject and relative items 
minus 
Average of subject items X total of relative items 

r ^ : : 

Sum of squares of subject items Sum of squares of relative items 

minus Y minus 



Average X total of these items 



Average X total of these items 



In the table the number of terms was the subject series while the grades 
were the relative series. The resulting coefficient was 0.93, which may 
be interpreted as indicating the extent to which length of time in school 
means higher grades reached or vice versa. 

We are not, however, so much concerned with the degree of relation- 
ship existing as we are in determining the average rate of progress shown 

52 



by the pupils involved; for instance, how long (in number of terms) 
has it taken the average pupil to cover the work of one grade, and sec- 
ondly, how many grades or what part of one grade has the average pupil 
completed in one term. 

This is a more complete method of describing the existing relation- 
ship, and is indicated by the coefficients of regression which measure 
the amount of change in the first series (terms in school) that corresponds 
on the average to a unit of change in the second series (grades attained) 
or the change in the second series that corresponds to a unit of change 
in the first series. From the Ayres formula the coefficients of regres- 
sion for the distributions in our grade-progress table were computed and 
found to be 81 and 108. This means that the pupils have on the average 
progressed 0.81 of a grade for each term in school while on the other 
hand they tend to spend 1 .08 terms for each advance of one grade. 



4. Number of Pupils Who Have Made Rapid, Normal and 
Slow Progress 

(a) FOR the city as a whole 

Tables XVIII and XIX present in condensed form the distribution 
of Table XVII. They show by grades the number and percentage of 
pupils who have made rapid progress, normal progress and slow progress. 
It appears that out of 710,653 pupils on register in the regular grades 
on February 28th, 85,938, or 12.09%, have made rapid progress, 297,821, 
or 41.9%, have made normal progress, and 326,894, or 45.99%, have 
made slow progress. In other words, out of every hundred pupils in 
the grades 42 made normal progress, and 46 made slow progress, while 
only 12 made rapid progress. The number that made slow progress is 
four times as large as the number of pupils who made rapid progress. 
To every hundred pupils that made normal progress 110 made slow 
progress while only 29 made rapid progress. 

Any consideration of such facts must take into account the vary- 
ing degree of acceleration or retardation which may be slight, substan- 
tial or very great. To say that 326,894 pupils, or 45.99% of all pupils, 
made slow progress is true and somewhat startling. We must supple- 
ment such statement, however, by data as to the degree of retardation 
if we are to get an accurate indication of the situation. 

Tables XVIII and XIX also present data showing for each grade 
the number and percent, of pupils according to the extent of acceler- 
ation and retardation. They show that for all grades combined 145,357, 
or 20.44%o of all pupils, are retarded but one term, 76,758, or 10.79%c, 
two terms, 45,838, or 6.44%, three terms, 26,983, or 3.79%, four terms, 
15,508, or 2.18%, five terms, and 16,450, or 2.31%o, six or more terms. 
On the other hand 58,566, or 8.23%o, of all pupils on register in regular 
grades are accelerated one term, 18,491, or 2.6%, are accelerated two 
terms, 5,794, or 0.81%o, three terms, 1,872, or 0.26%o, four terms and 
1,215, or 0.17%, are five or more terms advanced. Figure 20 shows 
such data graphically. 



53 







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419 




FIGURE EO 
Snmber of PupUa ont 
of Eaoh ThoBsanfl AQOordln^ 
to Dagrea of fiapld and 
Slow Pregrasa 










;:04 


108 


' 








b;; 














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6 4 3 2 1 1 ;. 

Terms Terms Terms Terms Term Term Terca 

RAPID PROCfiKSS NOSiiUL 3 L iV 
PKOCItiiSS 



5 4 5 

Terms Terms Terms 
PR0GHE3S 



Of the retarded pupils almost half, 44.5%, are retarded but one 
term, while 23.5% are retarded two terms. This means that these pupils- 
have failed of promotion but once or twice throughout their school career. 
The 31,958 pupils who are retarded five or more terms form 4.49% of 
all the pupils in regular grades. These are the pupils who present the 
most serious problem. 

(6) BY GRADES 

If we examine the data of Table XIX with reference to the par- 
ticular grades, we note as illustrated in Figure 21 that the percentage 
of rapid progress is lowest in the IB, where it is 0.6%, and that it 
increases irregularly until it reaches a maximum in the 9B. The ninth 
year includes the junior high school groups, which are made up to a large 
extent of rapid advancement pupils and are relatively small in number. 

It is to be noted that the rates for each school year advance quite 
regularly and also that in each school year the percentage of rapid prog- 
ress pupils in the ''A" term or first half of the school year is greater than 
that of the "B" term or second half year It is to be expected that the 
lowest percentage of rapid progress pupils would be in the lowest grades. 

56 



As the pupils advance through the grades and spend more and more 
time in school, the chances for rapid progress increase, so that it is nat- 
ural to expect in the 8B more rapid progress pupils than in the IB. 
More specifically, a pupil entering the IB has been in school normally 
but one term: There is little chance for him to show rapid progress. 
The six tenths of one percent, who are reported as rapid progress repre- 
sent pupils who have skipped the lA and who were placed in the IB 
upon entrance, probably because of special brightness, home instruc- 
tion, etc. Again in the 4A grade entering pupils have normally been 
in school six terms, so that the chance of having gained time compared 
with the IB is 6 to 1. In the 8B entering pupils are supposed to have 
spent fifteen terms in school. The chance of gaining some time in fif- 
teen terms is much greater than that in six terms of schooling, etc. 




/^ee/it cf puDiti /n eac/3 S/'ac^e trAo Aai^e s/}o/yn 
Pao/d ppoGPeas nop/na/ ppospess a^d ^o>y ppospesi. 



The rate for normal progress decreases from the lowest grades, where 
it is highest (see Table XIX and Figure 21) through the grades, reach- 
ing the lowest point in the ninth year. There is an alternation of rates. 
While the rate for each school year as a unit shows a regular decrease, 
it is to be noted that the rate for the "A" term, or the first half of the 
school year, is lower than that for the "B" term or second half. The 
percentage of "normal progress" pupils varies obviously with the changes 
in the percentage of accelerated and retarded pupils. 

The percentage of slow progress or retarded pupils, as seen in Fig- 
ure 21, gradually increases from lA and IB grades, where it is 34.4 
and 23.4 respectively, upward through the grades, reaching peak in the 
6A, where it is 58.9%. It then subsides, reaching a minimum in the 
9B grade, where it is 15.7%. It is to be expected that the number of 
slow progress pupils would be least in the lowest grades. As the pupils 



remain more and more terms in school the chances for failure cumula- 
tively increase, and the number is, therefore, bound to be higher in the 
higher grades. For instance, in the IB, which, according to our stand- 
ards of normal progress should be reached by pupils after one term in 
school, there is not as great a chance of failure as the same pupils would 
have after they have spent ten terms in school. The decrease in the 
number of retarded pupils in the upper grades, above the 6th year, is 
due in large measure to the fact that retarded pupils are eliminated in 
large numbers after those grades are reached. 

Again it is to be noted that there is an alternation of rates between 
the first and second half years. The 'B" terms or second half year show 
a lower rate of retardation than the "A" terms or first half. 



(c) 



BY SEX 



Table XX shows for boys and girls the percentage of pupils in each 
grade who made rapid, normal and slow progress. In the 2B grade 
such comparison shows that the girls have a slightly higher percentage 
of accelerated pupils, a considerably higher percentage (62% to 56%) 
of normal progress pupils and a considerably lower rate of retardation 
(32 to 39%), than the boys. In all the grades from lA to 8B this is 
the case. For all grades combined the girls show superiority over the 
boys. To every 100 boys who are accelerated there are 114 girls; to 
every 100 boys who show normal progress there are 108 girls; while to 
every 100 retarded boys there are only 90 retarded girls. 

Figure 22 shows this comparison graphically. 



TABLE XX— PERCENTAGE OF GIRLS AND BOYS IN EACH GRADE WHO HAVE 
MADE RAPID PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS AND SLOW PROGRESS 





Rapid 


Normal 


Slow 


Grade 
















Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


lA 


.... 




64.37 


. 66.84 


35.62 


33.15 


IB 


0.53 


0.76 


74.06 


77.94 


25.40 


21.29 


2A 


5.12 


5.94 


42.87 


48.30 


52.00 


45.75 


2B 


4.45 


4.94 


56.54 


62.34 


39.00 


32.71 


3A 


10.24 


11.79 


36.00 


39.01 


53.75 


49.19 


3B 


7.13 


7.74 


47.20 


53.42 


45.66 


35.83 


4A. 


11.89 
9.40 


14.38 
10.61 


29.40 
39.99 


31.98 
46.13 


58.70 
50.60 


53.63 


4B 


43.25 


5A 


14.33 


16.25 


26.26 


29.86 


59.40 


53.88 


5B 


11.70 


14.22 


34.57 


38.72 


53.72 


47.06 


6A 


15.05 
13.26 


17.43 
14.54 


23.76 
32.70 


26.03 
35.93 


61.19 
54.04 


56.54 


6B 


49.53 


7A 


18.98 


21.17 


22.19 


22.88 


58.83 


55.95 


7B 


16.77 


17.35 


31.22 


34.95 


52.01 


47.70 


8A 


26.79 


29.88 


22.53 


22.49 


50.68 


47.63 


8B . 


25.26 
51.84 


25.84 
57.10 


32.82 
21.15 


34.56 
17.40 


41.92 
27.00 


39.60 


9A 


25.50 


9B 


63.24 


58.52 


22.08 


24.96 


14.68 


16.52 


lOA 


34.61 


36.54 


30.77 


32.69 


34.62 


30.77 


lOB 


22.22 


41.79 


55.56 


37.31 


22.22 


20.90 


Total 


11.30 


12.91 


40.27 


43.58 


48.43 


43.51 



58 




59 



(d) BY SCHOOLS 

Table XXI shows the distribution of the schools according to the 
percentage of rapid progress, normal progress and retarded pupils. The 
table reads as follows: one school has a rate of 46 to 50% of acceler- 
ated pupils, two schools, 36 to 40%, three schools, 31 to 35%, and so on. 
The median rate for accelerated or rapid progress pupils is 10.1%. This 
means that there are as many schools with rates greater than 10% as 
there are schools with lower rates. The median rate for normal progress 
is 41%, while that for retardation or slow progress is 45.1%. 

TABLE XXI— DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO PERCENTAGES OF RAPID 
PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS AND SLOW PROGRESS PUPILS 





Number of Schools 


Percent. 


Rapid progress 


Normal progress 


Slow progress 


96-100 






1* 


91-95 








3 


1* 


86-90 


1* 


81-85 


It 

1 

3 


76-80 

71-75 .... 


66-70 .. 

61-65 


5 

7 


56-60 


9 
28 
79 
117 
99 
81 
30 
16 

3 

1 
4 


26 


51-55 


65 


46-50 


1 

2 

3 

9 

27 

45 

118 

174 

91 


102 


41-45 


120 


36-40. 


82 


31-35. . 


39 


26-30 


13 


21-25 




16-20 .... 


1 


11-15 


1 


6-10 

1-5 


1 






Total .• 

Median 


470 

10.1 Tc 


470 
41.0% 


470 

45.1% 



* Probationary Schools. 



t School organized for overage pupils. 



The wide variation in rates between schools is striking. The 
extreme range is in retardation where one school has over 81% of its 
pupils retarded (the three probationary schools are not here considered) 
down to one where the retarded pupils form but 5% of the total number. 
The explanation of the differences is to be found not only in the differ- 
ences in local conditions, such as neighborhood, nationality, foreign 
population, and in varying school conditions, but also in the fact that 
in some schools every effort has been made for some time to apply all 
available means in order that the progress of pupils may be accelerated. 

The effect of the organization of rapid advancement classes is seen 
in a comparison of the rates of acceleration of junior high schools with 
the rates for regular schools. In establishing junior high schools and 
junior high school departments one aim was to provide opportunities 
for the brighter pupils to finish the work of the seventh, eighth and ninth 
school years in two years. Rapid advancement classes are, therefore, 
a feature of our junior high schools, and to such classes it is customary 
to send 15% of the brightest pupils in neighboring schools at the com- 
pletion of the 6B grade. 



60 



TABLE XXri— COMPARISON OF RATES OF RAPID PROGRESS IN REGULAR SCHOOLS 
AND IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



Percent. 


1-5 


6-10 


11-15 


16-20 


21-25 


26-30 


31-35 


36-40 


41-45 


46-50 


Total 


Median 


Regular 

schools. . . . 
Junior High 

schools. . . . 


90 
1 


172 
2 


110 

8 


37 

8 


20 

7 


4 
5 


1 
2 


1 

1 




1 


435 
35 


9.7% 
25.1% 


Total . . 


91 


174 


118 


45 


27 


9 


3 


2 





1 


470 


10.1 -70 



While the above is not in all respects a valid comparison, inasmuch 
as in the junior high schools there are in most cases regular school organ- 
ization with grades from IJl to 6B, the junior high schools show a much 
higher rate of rapid progress than the traditional schools. The median 
for the junior high schools is 25.1% as compared with 9.7% for the reg- 
ular schools. On the other hand, it must be kept in mind that if the 
])right pupils, those who usually have made rapid progress or who are 
most capable of so doing are sent from the "regular" schools to junior 
high schools, the schools from which such pupils come will tend to have 
lower rates of rapid progress. Some credit, however, must be attri- 
buted to the work of the rapid advancement classes in junior high schools 
in saving pupils' time. 

5. Age Grade Status in Relation to Progress 

As already stated in a preceding section, former methods of study- 
ing retardation and acceleration considered only the ages of pupils in 
relation to their grades. The actual rates of progress, that is, the num- 
ber of terms in school taken by given pupils to cover the work of a given 
number of grades, were not taken into account because of a lack of data 
as to the school history of pupils. 

Since the assumption that an underage pupil is always accelerated 
and an overage pupil is always retarded is not a valid one, it is desir- 
able to consider the age grade status of pupils not alone but in relation 
to their progress. The present section does this. 

The report blank used, a copy of which is reproduced herewith, 
classifies the pupils both as to ages and as to rate of progress. By means 
of the heavy lines on the blank the class group is divided into nine class- 
ifications. 

Underage — rapid progress 

Underage — normal " 

Underage — slow " 

Normal age — rapid " 

Normal age — normal " 

Normal age — low " 

Overage — rapid " 

Overage — normal " 

Overage — slow " 

Table XXIII wliich follows presents by percentages for each grade 
the pupils according to this ninefold classification. Bearing in mind that 
the data presented are with reference to the entrance of pupils upon 
the grade specified, we read the table for grade 8B as follows: 

61 







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62 



BOARD OF EDUCATION-BUREAU OF REFERENCE. RESEARCH AND STATISTICS 

Age Progress Sheet — Term beginning February 1, 1921 
P. S.///r4Borough-2><r:-^r^ Grade 6A, Class .,<i:^_:! Sex of Pupils .)^— ^^ 

Number of Pupilt on Reiuter on Februarr t, 1921. Boyi.'^/' Girb —'.. Total "/ 



ACES AND 


TERMS IN SCHOOL 


n... 


'\ 


BIRTH 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


1 


3 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


1 


























































2 


























































3 Frf.. JQIj yv°l9l5 


























































4 A,., 1914- I.n.'l9li 


























































, 5 Fffc. 1914 . Ial,'l9l4 


























































6 An.. 1913 . I.i,."r9l4 


























































7 Feb. 1913 . Iul,'l9l3 












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AoB. I9U Jui.'^9l3 










... 


°" 


o... 


k- 






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°- 


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9 Ftb 1912 Idv 1912 


























































10 Aus 1911 . I.n. 1912 


























































II F^ 191 1 . IJv 1911 


























































12 Aug. 1910 . Ian. l9l 1 






















i. 


































X. 


13 Ftb 1910 . July 1910 




















J 


4- 


































7 


14 Au. 1909 . Iia 1910 






















t:. 




3 


J. 










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/ i 


15 Feb '1909 U, 1909 










... 




u.j 






/ 


.:;; 


:,*:. 


7 


/ 


' 






•' 


-., 


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/ 


16 Aa». 'l908 . I.n'.' 1909 




















/ 


/ 




/ 


J, 


J 


























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17 Feb. '1908. iulv'l908 






























r 


























<i~ 


18 Ann. 'l 90 7 • I.n l'908 






























/ 






/ 




















■«_ 


19 Feb 1907 . Inlv'l907 


























































20 An« 1*906 . Un"907 




































/ 




















f 


21 Feb. 'i906 Inlv 1906 








































/ 
















/ 


22 Aut.'l905' I.n"l906 


























































23 Feb I90i . W, 190) 
























































24 Ann. 1904 . I.n. 1905 
























































25 Feb ''904. My' 1904 














L... 








s 














,. . 




















26 Au. 'l903 ■ l.n'. 11904 
























































27 Feb. 'l'903- Inlv'l903 
























































28 


























































29 


























































30 




















































































































Toials 




















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Coropaced iMlh d.lei o( biith irt the teachef'i (oil book and checked fw accuracy ac«ordin( to the inltnjclioni (of (hii leport by 

Signo^^<^7Srei?!^«r~(<^^^--?-J,^c<._. 



63 



18.7% of the pupils are underage and have made rapid progress, 
12.7% are underage but have made simply normal progress, while 2.7% 
of the grade group are underage but have made slow progress; 4.7% 
of the pupils are normal as to age but have made rapid progress; 
17.4% are normal both as to age and progress, while 17.6% are normal 
as to age but are retarded. On the other hand, 2.1% are overage but 
have made rapid progress; 3.57% are overage and have made normal 
progress, but 20.4% are overage and retarded at the same time. Simi- 
larly for the other grades. 

For all the pupils regardless of grades the number in each classi- 
fication is shown in the following tables: 

TABLE XXIV— CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO BOTH AGE-GRADE 
STATUS AND PROGRESS 





Rapid 
progress 


Normal 
progress 


Slow 
progress 


Totals 




58,791 
16,583 
10,564 


115,061 

154,374 

28,386 


10,722 
141,895 

174,277 


184,574 




312,852 




213,227 






Totals 


85,938 


297,821 


326,894 


710,653 



TABLE XXV— NUMBER OF PUPILS IN EACH THOUSAND IN EACH CLASSIFICATION 
ACCORDING TO AGE-GRADE STATUS AND PROGRESS 





Rapid 
progress 


Normal 
progress 


Slow 
progress 


Totals 




83 
23 
15 


162 

217 

40 


15 
200 
245 


260 




440 




300 






Totals 


121 


419 


460 


1,000 



Table XXV shows the data of Table XXIV reduced to a rate per 
thousand. . From this table we see that 260 out of every thousand pupils 
were underage. The assumption that all these pupils are accelerated 
is not borne out by the data as to progress. It is shown that of the 260 
per thousand that are underage, 15 are retarded, 162 are only normal 
in progress, while only 83 are accelerated. Similarly with the overage 
and normal age groups. Out of every thousand we have 300 overage. 
While it is true that most of these overage pupils are retarded, some 40 of 
the 300 have made normal progress, and 15 have made rapid progress. 

A comparative analysis of each age grade group in terms of progress 
shows the following: 



TABLE XXVI— NUMBER OF PUPILS PER THOUSAND FOR EACH AGE-GRADE STATUS 
GROUP ACCORDING TO PROGRESS 



Age-grade 

status 


Rapid Normal 
progress progress 


Slow 
progress 


Total 


Underage 


319 
53 
50 


623 
493 
133 


58 
454 
817 


1,000 
1,000 
1,000 







64 



The above table shows that for every thousand underage pupils 
319, or 31.9%, made rapid progress; 623, or 62.3%, made normal prog- 
ress, while 58, or 5.8%, made slow progress. The largest proportion of 
underage pupils made only normal progress, so that it is seen that "under- 
age status" does not necessarily mean accelerated progress. 

Of each thousand "normal age" pupils, about half made normal 
progress, 5.3% were accelerated, and the rest, 45.4%, were retarded 
pupils. Such retarded pupils cannot be retarded to any great degree. 
They are probably pupils who entered "underage" and who have now 
become "normal age" because of loss of time through slow progress. 

Of the overage pupils 5%, have made rapid progress, 13.3% have 
advanced normally, while 81.7% are, as expected, retarded. It is inter- 
esting to note that proportionately almost an equal num})er of overage 
pupils made rapid progress as of "normal age" pupils. 

Analysis of the data for each progress group shows the same facts, 
but from the standpoint of progress rather than from that of age. 

TABLE XXVII— NUMBER OF PUPILS PER THOUSAND IN EACH PROGRESS CLASSI- 
FICATION ACCORDING TO AGE-GRADE STATUS 



Progress classification 


Underage 


Normal age 


Overage 


Total 


Rapid progress 

Normal " 


684 

386 

33 


193 
519 
434 


123 

9.5 

.533 


1,000 
1,000 
1,000 


Slow " 





Table XXVII shows the make up of each progress group according 
to age status. Out of every thousand rapid progress or accelerated 
pupils 68.4% are underage, 19.3% are of normal age and 12.3% are 
overage. Of the normal progress group 51.9% are also normal in age, 
38.6% are underage, while 9.5% are overage. Of the retarded pupils, 
of every thousand 53.3% are overage, 3.3% are underage, while 43.4% 
are normal age. 

6. Causes of Slow Progress 

Since the pubhcation of the first data showing that large numbers 
of school children were above the normal age for their grade or were 
retarded in progress, the problem has received considerable attention 
and numerous investigations and studies have been conducted to deter- 
mine the causes. As a result a considerable body of data with reference 
to the problem in this City has been accumulated, a summary of which 
is presented in this section for the information of the reader. It is to 
be noted that, while a distinction is made in the present study between 
the overage pupil and the retarded pupil, such distinction was not made 
in the studies or reports cited below. 

(a) CAUSES ASSIGNED BY DR. MAXWELL 

Dr. Maxwell in his report of 1904, the year in which he first pre- 
sented age grade statistics for New York, attributed the large number of 
overage children to the following causes: 

(1) "In well-to-do families there is a constant and I am convinced, a mis- 
taken tendency to keep children from school until they are seven or eight years 
of age. 

65 



(2) "The large size of our classes, particularly in the lower grades, pre- 
vents that attention on the part of teachers to individual pupils which is nec- 
essary to normal progress as well as to individual development, and hence 
pupils are not promoted as rapidly as their best interests demand. 

(3) "The teaching in the part-time classes is necessarily less effective 
than in full-time classes and this fact operates to retard the promotion of pupils . 

(4) "The great influx of non-EngUsh speaking foreigners every week into 
our schools introduces into the lower grades thousands of children who, as 
a rule, are beyond the normal age of American children in these grades." 



(5) EEPORT OF THE COMMITTEES ON OVERAGE — 1910 

At the beginning of the school year 1909-1910 Superintendent Max- 
well appointed a number of committees to study the question of over- 
age for the purpose of determining the probable causes. The findings 
of these committees were published in the Twelfth Annual Report of 
the Superintendent of Schools and are reproduced here: 

Committees Appointed by Dr. Maxwell — School Year, 1910 

"The eight committees were in substantial accord in stating that the fol- 
lowing are the chief causes of failure on the part of pupils to secure regular 
promotion from grade to grade. The causes, however, are not stated in any 
order of intensity. 

"Irregular attendance — due to poor home conditions; looseness of paren- 
tal control; ignorance of parents; lack of opportunities for home study; 
poverty of home requiring pupil's assistance; sickness of other members 
of the family; lack of proper clothing; feeble health of individual pupils; 
poverty of surroundings. 

"Truancy, which is attributed by the principals to three chief causes: 
Lack of support by the courts in enforcing the Compulsory Education Law; 
lack of cooperation of parents; lack of a sufficient number of attendance 
officers. 

"Ignorance of the English Language, due to foreign birth and to the 
fact that EngKsh is not the language of the home. 

"Late Entrance into School, due to two causes: The presence of immi- 
grant children and the fact that many children are sent to private schools 
before they enter the pubhc schools. 

"Transfer from School to School. Such transfers involve loss of time 
owing to variations in the interpretation of the course of study and sylla- 
buses and in following different sequences of topics in different schools, 
and frequently to delay in entering school after removal from one school 
district to another school district. 

"Physical Defects. These are caused or intensified by lack of medica^ 
care; nervous troubles; adenoid growths and enlarged tonsils; defective eyes, 
ears, and teeth; malnutrition; physical precocity; lack of play and exercise; 
. unsanitary conditions. 

"Sluggish Mentality. Sometimes this feature takes the form of posi- 
tive mental defect, and sometimes it characterizes pupils as slow in recep- 
tivity and response. Sometimes it takes the form of moral defects, such 
as dishonesty, lying and cheating, which are intensified by improper read- 
ing, the following of bad examples, and petty defiance of law in the streets . 

"Excessive Size of Classes, which prevents teachers giving necessary 
individual instruction. 

"Prolonged or Frequent Absence of Teachers, during which their classes 
are taught by substitutes who are sometimes indifferent and sometimes 
inefficient. 

"Part Time, which prevents pupils from doing the work of the lower 
grades thoroughly. 

"Varying Standards of Rating Pupils. Some principals and teachers 
adopt too high a standard; some too low a standard. 

66 



"Inefficient Teaching, due to teachers' talking and doing too mucli for 
their pupils; lack of thoroughness; obsolete aims and methods in teaching 
on the part of some of the older teachers; occasional lack of the power of 
disciphne; neglect of opportunity afforded by the study period to teach 
children how to study. 

"Improper Methods of Promotion, due to unnecessarily holding back 
pupils; not making promotions with sufficient frequency; and to differing 
standards of promotion." 

(c) INVESTIGATION OF AYRES 

In 1908, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, 
conducted a study of the school records of 20,000 children in fifteen 
Manhattan schools in order to determine the causes of retardation. Of 
the 20,000 records examined, only 9,489 were sufficiently complete to 
give the date of first entrance upon school by the pupil. The report of 
the study was published in full as an appendix (page 568) of the Annual 
Report of the Superintendent of Schools for 1908, and subsequently 
enibodied by Ayres in his "Laggards in Our Schools." The findings of 
this study in so far as they relate to causes of retardation are given in 
summary form: 

(1) Of each 100 retarded children — 

30 were retarded because of late entrance. 

13 " " " " " and slow progress. 

57 " " " slow progress. 

(2) Of every 1,000 children— 

195 started at the age of 5 

512 " " " " " 6 

200 " " " " " 7 

62 " " " " " 8 

21 " " " " " 9 

, « « « « " le 

3 « « « « « ji 

1 (( « ii u « 1 9 

(3) Five percent, of the pupils had reached their present standing in the 
grades by more rapid than normal progress. 

Fifty-five percent, had progressed normally. 

Forty percent, had progressed more slowly than the normal rate. 
(4j The percentage of retardation among the different nationalities ropre- 
sente 1 in the schools involved was as follows: 

< ermans 16.6 

Americans • ....19.6 

Russians 22.9 

Irish 29.5 

Itahans ....35.5 

Entire Group ...22.9 

(5) Boys showed substantially the same percentage of retardation as girls 
(boys 22.2, girls, 23.6). 

(6) The average number of transfers per child among children of normal 
age was 0.95. Among those of above normal age it was 1.18. Transfers aft'ect 
retardation. 

(7) Children of normal age were found to have more physical defects than 
retarded children; normal age 80 per cent; above normal age 75 percent. 

Children in the lower grades had more defects than those in upper 
grades. 

Defective children in the first grade have about 2.5 defects apiece; 
those in the eighth grade about 1.3. 

Defective vision was found to be the only defect rpore prevalent among 
retarded children than among children of normal age. 

All defects except defective vision decreased with age. 

Of the boys, 78.5 had physical defects; of the girls, 79.2.' 

67 



(d) STUDY OF NON-PROMOTION BY DR. BACHMAN 

Another important study that was conducted to determine the chief 
cause of failure on the part of pupils to secure regular promotion was 
that made by Bachman as part of the Hanus School Inquiry in 1911. 
In his report Dr. Bachman characterized his conclusions as tentative. 
He pointed out the complexity of the problem and the difficulty of meas- 
uring the retarding force of particular factors. His conclusions were 
as follows : 

(1) Promotion, Non-Promotion and Size of Class 

Bachman found "as promotions were made at the end of the February 
term, 1911, over-size classes were no material factor except in the lA grade 
in increasing the number of non-promotions and contributed but slightly if 
at all to congestion." The rates of promotion for classes of the several sizes, 
all grades combined, were as follows : 

, Classes Rates 

Under 35..._ .......89.36 

35-40 89.14 

41-50 88.95 

51-55 87.68 

56-60 83.45 

Over 60 ..71.19 

Combining all classes of fifty and under and all classes of over fifty, and 
making the comparison between these two size groups only within each grade, 
Bachman found in nine out of the sixteen grades the higher rate of promotion 
was in classes of fifty and under, while in seven the higher rate was in classes 
over fifty. 

Although the higher rate of promotion was found in the majority of grades 
in classes of fifty and under, this higher rate was so small that had promotion 
in each of the several grades been the same for classes of over fifty as for classes 
of fifty and under, there would have been in classes of over fifty a net increase 
of only 789 promotions out of a total of 73,991 pupils, the equivalent of one 
additional pupil to each 94 pupils in classes over fifty. 

{2} Promotion, Non-Promotion and Absence 
The effect of absence on the progress of children was shown to be as follows : 
For pupils absent Promotion Rate 

10 days or less .93.16 

11 to 20 87.60 

21 to 30 : ....82.15 

31 to 40 ...74.54 

41 and above ..52.82 

"The highest rate of promotion at the end of the February term, 1911, 
in every grade was therefore fch' pupils absent ten days or less; the rate decreased 
in every grade with each succeeding period of greater absence and the lowest 
rate of promotion in every grade was for pupils absent 41 days and above. 

"Grouping the pupils according as they were absent twenty days and 
less and twenty-one days and more shows that the effect of absence on the rates 
of promotion is greatest in the lA grade. From the IB on the seriousness of 
absence becomes increasingly greater practically to the SB. 

"Had the same rate of non-promotion prevailed in all grades among pupils 
absent eleven days and above as prevailed for pupils absent ten days or less 
there would have been a decrease in the non-promotions of 64.3%. 

"Absence is a very large factor in increasing the number of non-promo- 
tions and hence is increasing congestion." 

(3) Promotion, Non-Ri'omotion and Over Age 

The rate of promotion for under age pupils was 92.24%, for normal age 
pupils 90.84%, and for over age pupils was 85.03%. 

"In eacli of the grades, 1A-4B, inclusive, with the exception of the 4A, 
the rate of promotion was higher for normal pupils than for pupils under age. 
From the 5B on, however, the higher rate in each grade was for pupils under 
normal age. 



"With the exception of the lA grade the rate of promotion was higher 
in each grade from 4.43% to 10.21% for pupils of normal age than for over age 
pupils. 

"When over age is viewed as the expression of the lack of ability among 
children or of the failure of the school to adapt its requirements to the abili- 
ties of the pupils, or of unfavorable home conditions, or of these and other 
factors together over age is cumulative, that is, over age children tend to fall 
farther and farther behind. 

"Over age is a decided factor in increasing the number of non-promo- 
tions and hence increases the amount of congestion." 

(4) Inability to Use the English Language as a Factor in Non-Promotion 

The presence of pupils in the regular classes of a grade unable to use the 
English language had no material effect on the rate of promotion for the grade 
as a whole. 

The rate of promotion for pupils able to use the English language was 
for all grades combined 88.99%. For all pupils including those unable to use 
the English language the rate was 88.68%. 

The rate of promotion for pupils able to use the English language was 
higher in each of the grades from 4.49% to 58.12% than for pupils unable to 
use the Enghsh langua'j;e. 

"When viewed in relation to the number of pupils involved, inabiUty to 
use the Enghsh language is a decided factor in increasing the number of non- 
l^romotions, but because of the relatively small number of such pupils it con- 
tributes to congestion only slightly in the lower and probably not at all in the 
upper grades. 

"Although the presence of pupils in regular classes vmable to use the Eng- 
lish language because of the relatively small number of such pupils does not 
affect the rate of promotion for a grade as a wiiole or add materially to con- 
gestion, inability to use the English language does affect decidedly the school 
progress of those pupils who are unable to use the English language." 

(o) Promotion, Non-Promotion and Part Time 

"The rate of promotion was higher in whole time classes than in part time 
classes in nine out of the twelve grades in which there were both kinds of classes, 
but had the higher rate of promotion in whole time classes prevailed in part 
time classes, the number of promotions in part time classes would have increased 
by only 782. 

"Part time so far as our data go is but a very slight factor in increasing 
the number of non-promotions and probably augments congestion not at all." 

(e) MEASURING THE ABILITIES OF RETARDED PUPILS 

In accounting for our school laggards only limited recognition in 
the past has been paid to differences in mental abihty as a factor in deter- 
mining pupils' progress. It is true that quite early it was recognized 
that there were a small number in our school population whose limited 
mentality prevented them from profiting by the provision made for the 
average pupils and whom, therefore, it was desirable to segregate. Out- 
side of such pupils all others were regarded as about equal in ability 
and susceptible to the same type of educational treatment. 

This failure to take into consideration differences in mental ability 
as a factor of progress is due in large part to the fact that, while modern 
psychology has directed itself for some time to the investigation of indi- 
vidual differences in mental capacity, the instruments for measuring 
in use up to very recently did not permit the application of such methods 
to the solution of school problems. Since group tests of intelligence 
have been devised it has become feasible to make mental measuren\ents 
of large groups of children and the significance of individual differences 
in the mental ability of pupils is being more thoroughly appreciated 
by the school man today. 

69 



As part of our study of the progress of pupils it was planned to obtain 
some measure of the mental ability of those pupils who showed extreme 
retardation or slow progress. In view of the numbers involved it was 
found necessary to limit the investigation to those pupils in two school 
districts who showed retardation of more than two years. 

Under the direction of the Inspector of Ungraded Classes the follow- 
ing tests were given in twenty-two schools to about nine hundred pupils : 

National Intelligence, Series B 
Trabue's Mentimeter Tests 
Stenquist Mechanical Aptitude Test 
Kelly-Trabue Language Completion 
Woody-McCall Arithmetic 
Thorndike-McCall Reading 
Buckingham SpelUng Scale 

The tests were given by trained psychologists and post-graduate stu- 
dents from Teachers College and from a number of local social agencies. 
While the results have not been completely analyzed the data available 
at this date are presented herewith. 

Table XXVIII shows a distribution of the pupils involved in the 
study according to their chronological ages and grades. The heavy 
lines running in steps downward across the table from left to right indi- 
cate the standard ages for entering the grades. All the pupils have lost 
more than four terms in reaching their present grades and accordingly 
are all overage. The pupils recorded below the dotted line in the table 
are those who are more than two years overage. They number 496, 
or 61% of the total. 



TABLE XXVIII- 



-DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO GRADES AND AGES OF 810 PUPILS 
RETARDED MORE THAN FOUR SCHOOL TERMS 





Grades Reached February 1, 1921 


age 

2 


B 


3A 


3B 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


e 


A 6B 




A 7B 


8A 


81 


i Total 


7^-8 


































8 -8J^ 
















8M-9 










9 - 9M 


1 

4 






93^-10 


4 

8 




1 


10 -lOM - 


1 
3 

1 
25 


— 


_ 


7 


103^-11 




4 


2 
1 
6 






13 


11 -llj^ 


L 
L 

■ 


8 

4 
2 

1 






18 


11>^-12 


10 
8 
6 
4 
1 

1 


2 

9 

20 

"15 "' 

16 

10 

6 

8 
4 


1 

2 

7 

13 






49 


12 -121^ 


13 : 12 










47 


123^-13 


6 
7 
2 
3 
2 
2 
1 


17 
13 
8 
2 
3 
2 


3 2 
9 2 

8 15 
6""; 17 




63 


13 -133^ 


1 






; 


64 


133^-14 


17 


2 


2 

1 2 

2 15 




89 


14 -143^ 






20 

18 

5 

1 


2 

2 
1 
1 


1 

1 
10 
15 
"17" 

3 

2 

1 


93 


143^-15 


4 27 


2 


3 

13 

10 

5 

1 


116 


15 -153^ 

15H-16 

16 -163^ 

163^-17 

17 -173^ 

173^-18 


3 7 
1 19 

2 
1 


2 
1 


: 18 

4 if 

6 7 

1 2 


89 
88 
47 
17 

7 
2 


Total - 


t 


26 


42 


66 


66 


90 


84 


11 


4 92 


7 


6 61 


50 


39 


810 



70 



TABLE XXIX— DISTRIBUTION OF 810 RETARDED PUPILS ACCORDING TO MENTAL 

AGE 



Mental age 


2B 


3 


A 3B 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


Total 


G)4- 7 

7 - 7' 2 


1 
2 


1 


1 1 
1 7 
7 10 


3 
13 

9 
20 


2 
4 
6 
20 
10 


1 
4 

8 

8 

20 

15 


1 
1 
1 
11 
9 

9 


1 
1 
5 

12 
9 

15 


2 
1 
5 
2 
12 
16 
15 


1 
1 

3 

6 
(') 

9 


2 

5 

4 
8 


3 
2 
6 


1 

1 

1 

4 

2 


3 
27 


7H- 8 


1 


42 


8 - 8H 




5 9 


41 


8J^- 9 




2 7 


76 


9 - 91-^ 




4 


10 
4 


70 


91^-10 


4 


9 


55 


10 -10^2 


6 

1 


14 
11 


71 


lOK-U 


3 
2 
2 
1 

1 


16 

S 


78 


11 -UH 


2 
4 
2 

1 


13 

s 


53 


llJ^-12 


10 
5 
2 

1 
1 


9 
5 


53 


12 -12H 


10 

7 
2 

1 
2 
1 
3 
1 


7 


44 


12K-13 


4 
2 

6 
1 
5 
1 
3 
3 


4 

5 


31 


13 -13}-2 


s 
2 
4 
1 
3 
4 
7 


3 

6 


27 


13>^-14 


5 

9 
3 
2 
1 
9 


1 
2 

3 
2 
6 
11 


24 


14 -liH 

uyi-15 

15 -loH 

15}^-16 

16 and over .... 


2 
6 
1 
5 
11 


20 
20 
10 
22 
43 


Total 


4 


2 


6 42 


60 


66 


90 


84 


114 


92 


76 


61 


50 


39 


810 



TABLE XXX— DISTRIBUTION OF 810 RETARDED PUPILS ACCORDING TO THE 
DEGREE OF MENTAL "UNDERAGENESS" AND "OVERAGENESS" 









Underage 












0VERA>,E 




















Nor- 






































Grade 


Over 
4 


3-4 


2-3 


1-2 


lyr. 
and 


Total 


mal 
age 


Total 


lyr. 
and 


1-2 


2-3 


3-4 


Over 
4 




yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


less 








less 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


2B 










3 


3 


1 














3A 








1 


18 


19 


7 














3B 








8 


19 


27 


11 


4 


4 










4A 








16 


29 


45 


14 


7 


6 


1 








4B 






2 


10 


30 


42 


15 


9 


5 


3 


1 






5A 






5 


16 ' 


35 


56 


25 


9 


6 


2 








5B 




1 


2 


20 


16 


39 


24 


21 


15 


3 


3 






6A 




1 


6 


21 


36 


64 


21 


29 


17 


4 


3 


4 




6B 




2 


6 


14 


31 


53 


14 


25 


6 


7 


6 


5 




7A 


1 


1 


3 


12 


16 


33 


14 


29 


10 


5 


7 


4 




7B 






4 


7 


12 


23 


9 


29 


14 


5 


4 


1 




sa; .... 








5 


11 


16 


9 


25 


8 


6 


4 


5 




8B 


1 


1 


1 


4 


7 


14 


3 


22 


5 


8 


4 


4 


1 


Total . 


2 


6 


29 


134 


263 


434 


167 


209 


96 


44 


32 


23 


14 




53.6 


20.6 


25.8 



















Table XXIX presents a distribution of the group according to men- 
tal ages. The heavy lines indicate the ages set up as standards for the 
given grades. The pupils recorded above the heavy lines are younger 
mentally than the normal, while those reported below such lines are older 
orientally than the normal ages for the grades. The data of this table 
are presented in Table XXX to show the degree of underageness and 

71 



overageness that is present under the appHcation of mental age grade 
standards instead of the usual chronological age standards. From these 
tables it appears that of the 810 pedagogically retarded pupils, 434, or 
5.3.6%, are below the normal mental age for their grades, that 167, or 
20.6%, are normally placed, while 209, or 25.8%, show mental ages one 
or more years above the levels of their grades. In other words, more 
than half of the group who are chronologically retarded have not the 
mental development which it is assumed is required to do the work of 
their grades. Actually they are not retarded but accelerated since they 
are in grades above the level where considerations of ability would place 
them. The constant pressure exerted to push forward such pupils has 
served to send them forward beyond the limits of their abihties. No 
matter what other causes may have been contributing factors in pro- 
ducing their retarded status, it appears that the most potent factor in 
the cases of these pupils has been their inferior mental development. 



^IGUP' 



Di6ZPibuzion of 610 
retarded pupils zo sbov, 
de^pce cf imdepa^ness 
and ovepojjenesi onzhe 
bus IS cP (\}er>r<i/ age gmds 
sw.ndards 



4(1^6 5l4fii5i4'^24f^ linear" Iqr i2ijrsl3urs54i(f>i \fi 
OviR. ove'' 



AGE 



Table XXXI shows the same pupils distributed according to intelh- 
gence quotients. The intelhgence quotient or I. Q. is the ratio of mental 
age to chronological age. A pupil twelve years old whose mental age is 
twelve would have an I. Q. of 100 (12 t- 12). His mental development has 



72 



equaled the jirowth of the average pupil of his age. An I. Q. of less than 
100 signifies a mental growth less than the average, while an I. Q. of 
more than 100 indicates a mental development be3^ond the average. 
The I. Q. therefore, indicates whether the pupils are bright, dull or 
average. 

TABLE XXXI— I. Q.'S OF 810 RETARDED PUPILS IN GRADES 2B TO 8B 



I. Q.'S 


Grades 


Total 




2B 


3A 


3B 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


63 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


130-139 

120-129 

110-119 

100-109 

90-99 

80-89 

70-79 

60-69 

50-59 

40-49 


2 

1 
1 


1 
11 
13 

1 


12 

20 

5 


3 
10 
20 

27 
5 

1 


3 

1 

11 

25 

20 

6 


1 

1 

4 

12 

34 

33 

5 


3 

4 

20 

36 

18 

3 


3 

5 

8 

33 

35 

28 


2 

2 

5 

14 

19 

34 

14 

2 


3 

3 

7 

10 

25 

17 

9 

1 

1 


1 

1 

5 

4 

IS 

16 

11 

5 


1 

1 

4 

11 

12 

14 

6 

1 


1 
1 
4 
7 
11 
8 
3 
3 
1 


4, 

8 

21 

46 

85 

174 

246 

192 

32 

2 


Total 


■4 


26 


42 


66 


66 


90 


84 


114 


92 


76 


61 


50 


39 


810 



52 



iq? 



•Z-l-fa 



r-i 



Jisure 14 A 
JQs of eio renuvfa/ 
pupils m (fPOites 2&rod6. 



b^ 



Of the 810 pupils, 226, or 27.9%, show intelligence quotients of less 
than 70, a fact that tends to show that they are feebleminded and fit 
subjects for admission to ungraded classes. The largest group, 420, or 



73 



51.8%, are in the class characterized as dull normal with I. Q.'s ranging 
from 70 to 90. Most of these are cases that are on the border line of 
feeblemindedness. The pupils of normal mental growth number but 
131, or 16.2%, while there are but 33, or 4.1%, that are above average. 
These data show even more conclusively the character of ability 
represented by these retarded pupils. While some of them are men- 
tally of the level required for the grade they are in, the I. Q. shows that 
in most of the cases this level was reached very slowly. In other words 
four out of every five of the pupils involved show less than average men- 
tal growth. 

Table XXXII shows the educational quotients or E. Q.'s for the 
pupils under consideration. The educational quotients were derived 
from the results of the achievement tests given to the group. From the 
score of a pupil in a given test the educational age or subject-matter 
age of such pupil in the given subject was determined by comparison 
with the age standards for such test, such standards being generally based 
upon the average performance or achievement of pupils of each given 
chronological age. For instance, a twelve-year-old pupil may obtain in 
reading a score which is equal to the average performance of ten-year 
olds. His reading age is then stated as ten years. 



TABLE XXXII— E. Q.'S OF 810 RETARDED PUPILS, GRADES 2B TO SB 





Grades 




E. Q.'S 




























Total 




2B 


3A 


3B 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 




110. . 










1 






1 




1 


1 
2 




1 


1 


100 


6 


90 








1 


2 




8 


6 


8 


1 


6 


5 


3 


40 


80 






1 


5 


7 


17 


12 


26 


19 


30 


19 


20 


15 


171 


70 




2 


10 


20 


27 


33 


26 


47 


45 


29 


27 


21 


13 


300 


60 


1 


15 


18 


31 


21 


31 


33 


31 


17 


14 


6 


4 


6 


228 


50 


3 


8 


13 


7 


6 


8 


4 


3 


2 


1 








55 


40 




1 




2 


2 


1 


1 




1 








1 


9 


Total 


4 


26 


42 


66 


66 


90 


84 


114 


92 


76 


61 


50 


39 


810 



By averaging the educational ages of the pupils in the several sub- 
jects a composite subject-matter age or educational age was obtained. 
By a comparison of the educational ages with the chronological ages 
we obtain a ratio which is termed the educational quotient. The edu- 
cational quotient will be 100 if the educational growth or growth in sub- 
ject matter equals the average growth of the pupils of the given chrono- 
logical age. If the pupil has not grown in control over subject-matter 
as much as the average pupil of his age, his educational quotient will 
be less than 100 and if his development has exceeded the average his 
E. Q. will be over 100. The Educational Quotient, therefore, indicates 
the rate of educational development of the pupil, which in turn serves 
as a partial index of his relative brightness. It must be kept in mind, 
however, that the educational development is the result of a number 
of factors or elements of which mental ability is but one. 

74 



"l? 



2:s 



tOi OfdtO ncrrufdcd 
pup, Is iDGPode'^::iro85 



2^C^ 



To :x") oO 70 



to ^10 & 1 115" 



The table shows that out of the 810 only 47 pupils, or about 6%, 
have E. Q.'s of 90 or above; 471, or 58.2%, have E. Q.'s of 70 to 90, 
while 292, or about 36%, show a very limited rate of educational devel- 
opment. This tends to confirm the facts shown by the data on Intelli- 
gence Quotients that for the great majority of our retarded pupils, limited 
mental power is the chief factor or cause of their retardation. 



IV— PROMOTIONS AND NON-PROMOTIONS 

The preceding sections have dealt with the progress of pupils as indi- 
cated by their ages in relation to the grades they entered on February 1st 
and also by the time they have taken to reach such grades. Promotion 
rates provide another measure of progress. This section of the report 
considers the statistics of promotion in elementary schools for both terms 
of the school year ending July 31, 1921. 

Promotions are regularly made on the last day of each term. In 
addition to these regular promotions some children are advanced during 
the course of the term. 



1. Peomotions for the School Year Ending July 31, 1921 

Tables XXXIII and XXXIV show by grades for the school terms 
ending January 31st and June 30th, respectively, 

(a) the register at the end of each term before promotion ; 
(6) the number promoted at the end of the term ; 

(c) the number promoted during the term; 

(d) the percent, of the pupils on register at the end of the term 

who were promoted; 

(e) the percent., the total number of promotions is to the regis- 

ter on the last day plus promotions during the term. 
The tables show that of the pupils on register in the regular grades 
on the last day of the Fall term, 87.3% were promoted, while on the last 
day of the Spring term, 88.3% of the register received advancement. 
If we include in our computation the pupils who received promotion 
during the term the rate of promotion for the Fall term was 87.6% and 
for the Spring term was 88.6%. The tables also give the data for the 
special classes and for the classes for defectives. 

Confining our attention to the regular grades we may note that 
for the term ending January 30, 1921, the average rate of total promotion 
was 87.6% (column 7). The lowest rate was in the lA grade with 
77%, and the highest rate (ignoring the classes above the 9B) was in 
the 9B with 94.1%. The lA and IB grades fall below the average, while 
the remaining sixteen grades involved exceed the average in most cases 
by small amounts (see Figure 25). The average rate of promotion at 
the end of the term was 87.3%, which was equalled and exceeded by all 
grades except the first year grades and the kindergarten extension classes. 

For the term ending June 30th the average rate of total promotions 
in regular grades was 88.6% (column 7). The lowest rate this term was 
again in the lA and the highest rate was in the 8B, ignoring tenth-year 
grades. The average rate of total promotions for all grades was equaled 
or exceeded by thirteen of the twenty-one grades. The rate of total 
promotion for the kindergarten extension, lA, IB, 2B, oA, 6A, 7A, 7B 
and lOA grades fell below the average. The average rate of promotion 
at the end of the term was 88.3%, which was equaled by all but the eight 
grades enumerated above. 

76 



TABLE XXXIII— PROMOTIONS BY GRADES FOR THE TERM ENDING JANUARY 31, 1921 





Register 

before 

promotion 

Jan. 31, '21 


Number promoted 


Percent, promoted 


Grade 


Prior 
to last 
day oi 

term 


On 

last day 

of 

term 


Total 

number 

of 

promotions 


On last 
day of 
term on 
register 


Total promotions 

on register 

plus promotions 

during term 


Kindergarten Extension. . . 
lA 


3,031 

73,980 

44,728 

54,740 

45,567 

49,704 

43,543 

48,258 

43,605 

46,114 

41,975 

43,873 

39,596 

40,584 

33,264 

32,484 

29,126 

3,757 

2,706 

105 

128 

2 


17 

1,572 

883 

1,294 

1,027 

825 

791 

822 

997 

1,226 

1,252 

1,654 

1,410 

1,900 

2,291 

2,294 

.546 

465 

268 


2,345 

56,674 

38,504 

48,393 

40,344 

44,477 

38,912 

42,728 

38,925 

40,523 

37,192 

38,639 

34,954 

35,568 

29,088 

28,804 

27,197 

3,409 

2,532 

92 

126 

2 


2,362 
58,246 
39,387 
49,687 
41,371 
45,302 
39,703 
43,550 
39,922 
41,749 
38,444 
40,293 
36,364 
37,468 
31,379 
31,098 
27,743 
3,874 
2,800 
92 
126 


77.4 
76.6 

86.1 
88.4 
88.5 
89.5 
89.3 
88.5 
89.3 
87.9 • 
88.6 
88.1 
88.3 
87.6 
S7.4 
88.7 
93.4 
90.7 
93.6 
87.5 
98.4 
100.0 


77.5 
77.0 


IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 


86.4 
88.6 
88.8 
89.6 


3B 


89.5 


4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 


88.7 
89.5 
S8.2 
88.9 


6A 


88.5 


6B 


88.7 


7A 


88.2 


7B 


88.2 


8A ■ 


89.4 


SB 


93.5 


9A 


92.2 


9B 


94.1 


IDA 


87.5 


lOB 


98.4 


12A 


100.0 


Total 


720,870 


21,534 


629,428 


650,962 


87.3 


S7.7 


Prevocational 

Opportunity 

C 


1 

10,699 

3,126 

393 

406 

85 

79 

322 

2,339 

294 

23 

3,188 

359 

671 

4,780 


463 
295 

2 
3 

2 


8,584 

1,619 

305 

398 

85 

44 

191 

1,359 

229 

13 

2,251 

245 

491 

371 


9,047 

1,914 

305 

398 

85 

44 

191 

1,361 

229 

13 

2,254 

245 

491 

373 


80.3 
51.8 
77.6 
98.0 
100.0 
55.4 
59.2 
58.1 
77.9 
56.4 
70.6 
68.2 
73.2 
7.8 


81.1 
55.9 




77.6 




98.0 




100.0 


Blind 


.55.4 




.59.2 


Crippled 


.58.1 


Deaf 


77.9 


Institutional 


.56.4 


Open Air 


70.6 


Sight Conservation 

Tubercular 


68.2 
73.2 


Ungraded 


7.8 






Total 


26,765 


765 


16,185 


16,950 


60.5 


61.6 






Grand total 


747,635 


22,299 


645,613 


667,912 


86.3 


86.7 







77 



TABLE XXXIV— PROMOTIONS BY GRADES FOR THE TERM ENDING JUNE 30, 1921 



Grade 



Kindergarten Extension . . 

1 A 

IB 

2A 

2B . . 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

6B 

6A 

6B 

7A. 

7B '. . ... 

8A 

8B 

9A 

9B 

lOA 

lOB 

Total 

Opportunity. 

C... 

Special Business 

Spec. Prevoc, Voc, and 

Shopwork 

Blind 

Cardiac 

Crippled 

Deaf 

Institutional 

Open Air 

Sight Conservation 

Tubercular 

Ungraded 

Hospital 

Entrance 

Court r 

Total 

Grand total 



R egister 

before 

promotion 

June 30, '21 



2,783 
49,365 
60,764 
45,435 
52,054 
46,096 
49,158 
43,771 
47,194 
43,938 
44,807 
40,847 
42,316 
39,042 
35,880 
33,518 
30,232 
4,940 
3,566 
130 
90 



NUMBEE PROMOTED 



Prior 

to last 
day of 
term 



13 

808 

1,185 

1,077 

1,203 

1,162 

949 

996 

976 

860 

826 

855 

684 

716 

801 

1,216 

420 

383 

190 



On 

last day 

of 

term 



2,246 
38,465 
53,709 
39,850 
47,018 
41,464 
44,709 
39,081 
42,579 
38,763 
39,850 
35,817 
37,396 
34,042 
31,295 
29,608 
28,540 
4,457 
3,321 
112 



Total 

number 

of 

promotions 



' 2,259 
39,273 
54,894 
40,927 
48,221 
42,626 
45,658 
40,077 
43,555 
39,623 
40,676 
36,672 
38,080 
34,758 
32,096 
30,824 
28,960 
4,840 
3,511 
112 



Pebcent, promoted 



On last 
day of 
term on 
register 



80.7 
77.9 
88.4 
87.6 
90.3 
90.0 
90.9 
89.3 
90.2 
88.2 
88.9 
87.7 
88.4 
87.2 
87.2 
88.3 
94.4 
90.2 
93.1 
86.1 
96.7 



Total promotions 

on register 

plus promotions 

during tenn 



80.8 
78.3 
88.6 
88.0 
90.5 
90.2 
91.1 
89.5 
90.4 
88.4 
89.1 
87.9 
88.6 
87.4 
87.5 
88.7 
94.5 
90.9 
93.5 
86.1 
96.7 



715,926 



15,320 



632,409 



647,729 



88.3 



10,213 

5,218 

554 

136 

70 

465 

2,337 

326 

192 

3,182 

430 

570 

4,847 

116 

33 

10 



343 
507 



8,732 

3,139 

545 

123 

41 

352 

1,585 

261 

121 

2,444 

325 

293 

460 

10 

18 



9,075 

3,646 

545 

123 

41 

354 

1,585 

261 

121 

2,449 

325 

293 

479 

10 

18 





85.5 
60.2 
98.4 

90.4 
58.6 
75.7 
67.8 
80.1 
63.0 
76.8 
75.6 
51.4 
9.5 
8.6 
54.5 



28,699 



876 



18,449 



19,325 



86.0 
63.7 

98.4 

90.4 
58.6 
75.8 
67.8 
80.1 
63.0 
76.8 
75.6 
51.4 
9.8 
8.6 
54.5 



744,625 



16,196 



667,054 



87.4 



Figures 25 and 26 show graphically for both terms how much the 
rates of total promotion in the several grades exceed or fall below the 
iiverage for all grades. 



78 




It appears from Figure 25 that, with the exception of the 3B and 
the 7B grades, the B grade, or the second half of each school year, showed 



79 



a higher rate of promotion for the Fall term than the corresponding A 
grade. For the Spring term this was so for all school years (see Figure 
26). In no case is the rate of a "B" grade lower than that of the "A" 
half of the school year. The average rate for the Fall term for all "B" 
grades was 89.95%, while that of the ''A" classes was 87.82%; for the 
Spring term the rate for the "B" grades was 90.4% as compared with 
87.7% for the ''A" grades. 

Conditions existing in the first half yearly grades are not apparently 
as favorable for the promotion of pupls as are those in the second half 
yearly grades. This is probably due in large measure to the fact that 
the course of study imposes greater difficulties in the first half of each 
yearly grade than it does in the second half. The course of study, for 
instance, introduces new subjects in the first half year. Geography is 
begun in the 4A, history in 5A, grammar in 6A, science in 7A and an 
elective foreign language in 8A. New parts of subjects are likewise begun 
more frequently in the "A" grade than in the "B" grade. The first half 
of each school year calls for the development of new material, while the 
second half is characterized by a preponderance of review work and drill. 

If instead of considering the pupils promoted we turn our atten- 
tion to those left back we may note from Table XXXV that out of the 
720,870 pupils on register in regular grades on January 31, 1921, 91,442 
failed of promotion. In other words, 12.7% of the pupils, or one out of 
every eight, failed to advance and was obliged to repeat the work. Table 
XXXVI shows that on June 30th last, 83,517 or 11.7% of the pupils 
failed of promotion. About one out of every nine failed to receive 
advancement. 

TABLE XXXV— NON-PROMOTIONS, FALL TERM ENDING JANUARY 31, 1921 



Grade 


Number of non- 
promoted on last 

day of term 
January 31, 1921 


Percent, of 
grade register 
non-promoted 


Percent, of non- 
promotions occurring 
in each grade 


Kindergarten extension 

lA 

IB 


686 

17,306 

6,224 

6,347 

5,223 

5,227 

4,631 

5,530 

4,680 

5,591 

4,783 

5,234 

4,642 

5,016 

4,176 

3,680 

1,929 

348 

174 

13 

2 


22.6 
23.4 
13.9 
11.6 
11.5 
10.5 
10.7 
11.5 
10.7 
12.1 
11.4 
11.9 
11.7 
12.4 
12.6 
11.3 

6.6 

9.3 , 

6.4 
12.5 

1.6 


0.75 

18.92 

6 81 


2A 


6 94 


2B 


5 71 


3A 


5 71 


3B 


5 06 


4A 


6 04 


4B 


5 11 


5A 


6 11 


5B ■.. 


5 23 


6A 


5 72 


6B 


5 07 


7A 


5 49 


7B 


4 56 


8A 


4 02 


8B 


2 11 


9A 


0.38 


93 


0.19 


lOA 


0.01 


lOB 


0.002 






Total 


91,442 


12.7 


99 99 







80 



TABLE XXXVI-NON-PROMOTIONt<, SPRING TERM ENDING JUNE 30, 1921 



Grade 



Kindergarten extension 

lA 

IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

9A 

9B 

lOA 

lOB 

Total 



Number of non- 
promoted on last 
day of term 
June 30, 1921 



537 

10,900 

7,05.3 

5, 585 

5,030 

4,632 

4,4,49 

4,690 

4.615 

5,175 

4,957 

5,030 

4,920 

5,000 

4,585 

3,910 

1,692 

483 

245 

IS 

3 



Percent, of 
grade register 
non-promoted 



83,517 



19.3 
22.1 
11.6 
12.4 

9.7 
10.0 

9.1 
10.7 

9.8 
11.8 
11.1 
12.3 
11.6 
12.8 
12.8 
11.7 

5.6 

9.8 

6.9 
13.9 

3.3 



Percent, of non- 
promotions occurring 
in each grade 



0.64 
13.05 
8.45 
6.69 
6.03 
5.55 
5.33 
5.62 
5.52 
6.20 
5.94 
6.02 
5.89 
5.99 
5.49 
4.68 
2.02 
0.58 
0.29 
0.02 
0.004 



11.7 



100.00 




Figures 27 and 28 show for each grade the percentage of pupils non- 
promoted and also the percentage of all non-promoted pupils found in 

81 



each grade. The figures and the tables show that the highest rates of 
non-promotion are found in the first-year classes, where occurred more 
than 25% of all failures at the end of the Fall term, and over 21% of 
those at the end of the Spring term. 





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- 1 1 1 



2. Rates of Promotion by Boroughs, Districts and Schools 

The preceding tables show rates of promotion for 1921, for the vari- 
ous grades that are averages — the results of many thousand items in 
which the best and the worst are not revealed. What seems charac- 
teristic of the City as a whole does not always hold for many individual 
schools and school districts. There are many deviations from the aver- 
ages that appear only in a study of the detailed rates for each school 
or district, detailed data which it is impossible to include herein. 

Table XXXVII however, presents the rates of total promotions for 
the regular grades for the five boroughs for both school terms. The vari- 
ations from borough to borough, and from grade to grade are apparent. 
For all grades in the January term the Bronx has the highest rate of 
promotion, 89.9%, Manhattan comes next with 88.5%, Queens next with 
87.6%o, then Brooklyn with 86.5%c„ and lastly Richmond with 81,7%. 
The same order obtains for the Spring term. Table XXXVIII shows 
average rates for all grades for each school district. 

Table XXXIX shows the rates of promotion by schools at the end 
of each term. The table reads as follows: For Manhattan at the end 
of the January term there were two schools with a rate of 97% or over, 
four schools between 93% and 96%, nine schools that obtained between 
89% and 92%, and so on down to four whose rate fell below 60%. 
Similarly for the other boroughs. 

82 



TABLE XXXVII-RATES OF PROMOTIONS BY BOROUGHS AND GRADES FOR E.\CH 
TERM OF THE SCHOOL YEAR 1920-1921 



Grade 


Entire City 


M.VNHATTAN 


Bronx 


Brooklyn 


Queens 


Richmond 


Jan. 


June 


Jan. 


June 


Jan. 


June 


Jan. 


June 


Jan. 


June 


Jan. 


June 


Kgn. ext 

lA 


77.5 
77.0 
86.4 
88.6 
88.8 
89.6 
89.5 
88.7 
89.5 
88.2 
88.9 
88.5 
88.7 
88.2 
88.2 
89.4 
93.5 
92.2 
94.1 
87.5 
98.4 
100.0 


80.8 
78.3 
88.6 
88.0 
90.5 
90.2 
91.1 
89.5 
90.4 
88.4 
89.1 
87.9 
88.6 
87.4 
87.5 
88.7 
94.5 
90.9 
93.5 
86.1 
96.7 


73.9 
76.6 
86.4 
88.5 
89.2 
90.9 
90.0 
89.5 
90.9 
89.6 
90.3 
90.0 
91.3 
89.2 
88.3 
91.0 
95.7 
92.9 
95.5 
88.2 
99.9 
100.0 


77.5 
77.8 
88.6 
87.8 
90.8 
90.6 
92.6 
91.3 
92.5 
90.9 
90.6 
90.3 
90.8 
89.1 
88.0 
90.5 
94.9 
91.7 
93.8 
91.5 
97.4 


92.1 
81.2 
88.8 
91.6 
92.0 
91.5 
91.6 
89.5 
92.0 
88.6 
89.3 
90.6 
88.2 
90.1 
91.9 
93.8 
93.7 
94.4 
94.8 


83.9 
83.4 
91.4 
90.0 
93.7 
92.5 
92.1 
90.2 
92.1 
89.8 
90.2 
87.8 
87.6 
90.4 
87.9 
93.3 
92.8 
92.9 
95.0 


80.9 
76.3 
85.6 
87.8 
87.1 
88.2 
88.0 
87.8 
87.6 
87.4 
87.8 
86.9 
87.2 
87.4 
87.3 
87.5 
92.3 
88.8 
90.5 


85.3 

77.4 
88.0 
87.4 
89.3 
89.1 
8S.4 
87.7 
88.2 
87.0 
87.5 
86.7 
87.0 
86.0 
86.9 
86.3 
94.7 
88.7 
91 7 


70.1 
78.3 
85.9 
89.2 
90.6 
89.9 
91.1 
89.6 
89.7 
87.2 
88.9 
88.7 
87.1 
87.2 
87.6 
86.9 
91.0 


75.3 
78.3 
87.4 
89.0 
90.9 
91.0 
91.5 
90.6 
90.5 
85.7 
89.6 
86.9 
89.8 
84.9 
89.0 
87.2 
95.1 


69.2 
84.7 
86.4 
84.0 
83.3 
89.5 
83.9 
85.4 
81.4 
85.7 
77.8 
84.1 
77.6 
81.0 
75.9 
87.7 
76.3 
84.5 
84.2 
100.0 




IB 




2A 




2B... . 


84.9 


3A 




3B 




4A 




4B 




5A 


80.9 


5B 


6A 


86.7 


63 


81.4 
83.7 


7A 


7B 


76.6 


8A 


81.6 
79.4 
96.1 
92 2 


8B 


9A 


9B 






100.0 
62.4 
92.8 


lOA 




12A 






Total 


87.6 


88.6 


88.5 


89.6 


89.9 


90.4 


86.5 


87.3 


87.6 


88.4 


81.7 


83.6 



TABLE XXXVIII- 



-AVERAGE RATES OF PROMOTION FOR ALL GRADES. BY DIS- 
TRICTS FOR FALL AND SPRING TERMS 



District 


Term ending 


District 


Term ending 


Jan. 31 


June 30 


Jan. 31 


June 30 


1 


81.9 
79.5 
82.1 
80.3 
82.0 
81.3 
83.7 
78.4 
79.1 
84.1 
87.4 
83.9 
85.1 
83.1 
81.4 
86.9. 
83.7 
82.8 
85.8 
85.7 
87.1 
84.6 
89.3 
81.6 


81.4 
80.5 
84.3 
83.3 
83. S 
80.4 
87.6 
79.1 
82.1 
83.7 
86.8 
88.1 
88.2 
86.0 
81.4 
86.5 
84.5 
82.3 
87.2 
86.9 
88.1 
85.2 
92.2 
80.8 


25 


83.8 
78.5 
76.2 
79.S 
79.7 
82.4 
81.3 
85.0 
79.1 
79.2 
79.6 
84.3 
81.1 
86.5 
80.6 
80.0 
84.6 
81.3 
81.4 
81.6 
82.7 
79.2 
78.1 
73.4 


84.3 
75.1 
72.3 

77.7 
79.9 
83.7 
82.7 
82.7 
80.8 
82.5 
81.6 
85.0 
81.1 
86.3 
82.0 
81.8 
83.9 
81.8 
81 3 


2 


26 


3 


27 


A 


28 


5 


29 


6 


30 


7 


31 


8 


32 


9 


33 


10 


34 


11 


35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


43 


20 


44 

45 


82.4 
85.6 
81.2 
78.4 
76 6 


21 


22 


46 

47 

48 


23 

24 











83 



TABLE XXXIX— RATES OF PROMOTIONS BY SCHOOLS FOR BOTH TERMS OF THE 
SCHOOL YEAR ENDING JULY 31, 1921 





For term 


ENDING Jan. 


31, 1921 


For term 


ENDING June 


30, 1921 






























Man. 


Bronx 


Bklyn 


Qu'ens 


Rich. 


Total 


Man. 


Bronx 


Bklyn 


Qu'ens 


Rich. 


Total 


97-100 


2 






2 




4 


4 


1 








5 


93-96 


4 


1 


1 


2 




8 


7 


2 


5 


3 




18 


89-92 


9 


9 


11 




1 


30 


14 


5 


5 


3 




27 


85- 88 


34 


13 


23 


9 




79 


29 


15 


32 


13 




93 


81- 81 


29 


15 


57 


27 


3 


131 


38 


22 


60 


23 




145 


77- 80 


?6 


7 


36 


13 


11 


103 


35 


2 


43 


12 


11 


103 


73- 76 


21 


4 


28 


5 


5 


63 


11 


4 


15 


8 




45 


69- 72. . . : 


8 


1 


10 


5 


2 


26 


3 


1 


9 


2 




16 


65-68 


1 


2 


10 


2 


z) 


17 


4 




2 


1 




8 


61- 64 




1 




1 


2 


4 


1 




2 


1 




4 


60 and below. . . 


4 

148 






1 


2 


7 


2 


1 


3 


1 




8 


Total 


53 


176 


67 


28 


472 


148 


53 


176 


67 


28 


472 


Borough rate . . . 


88.5 


89.9 


86.5 


87.6 


81.7 


87.6 


89.6 


90.4 


87.3 


88.4 


83.6 


88.6 



The extent to which local rates differ from each other and also vary 
from the averages for the borough and for the city are readily apparent. 
In view of the lack of more extensive data it is impossible to assign causes 
for such variations. They are due in all probability to the variation 
in school conditions and in characteristics of pupil group. 



3. Promotion Rates for Preceding Years 

Table XL shows for the j^ears 1911 to 1921, inclusive, the percen- 
tage of promotion for each grade for both Fall and Spring terms. The 
rates for the several grades during the past ten years have fluctuated 
more or less from year to year, hovering however closely in most of the 
grades between 88% and 89%. Comparison of the rates for each grade 
for June, 1911, June, 1916, and June, 1921, is shown in Figure 29. It 
shows that for each of the grades from lA to 8B the highest rates occurred 
in 1911. The rates for 1916 show a drop from those of 1911, while the 
rates for 1921 show a further drop in grades IB, 2A, 2B, 3A, SB, 6A 
6B, 7B, but a rise in lA, 4A, 4B, 5A, 5B, 7A, 8A and 8B. 

Figure 30 shows the average rates for all grades for the last eleven 
years. Since 1911, when the highest average rates were obtained, there 
has been a gradual reduction in rates, the lowest point for the Fall term 
occurring in January, 1919, and for the Spring term in June, 1918, Since 
then the rates show an upward tendency. The rate for June, 1921, is 
higher than for any Spring term since 1913, while the rate for January, 
1921, is higher than that for the corresponding terms of the last six 
years. 



84 





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85 




4. The Significance of Non-Promotions 

The promotion of pupils in the elementary schools is a matter of 
vital concern and permanent importance. Whether the rate of promo- 
tion rises or falls is not an academic question of theoretical interest. 

86 



It is a practical question which provides the principal quantitative index 
of the success of the schools and which operates as a potent factor in 
determining their cost. The fact that over 90,000 children on register 
the last day of the Fall term and over 83,000 pupils on register the last 
day of the Spring term failed of promotion and were therefore obliged to 
repeat the grade has serious significance. 

In the first place, non-promotion means slow progress, in other 
words, retardation. The 90,000 children who were ''left back" in Jan- 
uary account for 90,000 of those reported under the slow progress col- 
umns of Table XVII. Retardation is the chief cause of "overageness," 
and an increase in overage pupils means an increase in the probable 
number of pupils that will be eliminated without completing the elemen- 
tary course. The pupil who repeatedly fails to be promoted falls back 
more and more behind his fellows, and, finding himself at fifteen or six- 
teen in a sixth or seventh grade with the chances of completing the remain- 
ing grades apparently very slim, readily avails himself of the privilege of 
escaping from school in the hope of better success in the world outside. 

The effect of non-promotion upon the rate of progress and upon 
retardation is shown concretely in Table XLI. This table shows the 
conditions that would obtain if we applied the actual rates of promo- 
tion for the last eight years to 1,000 pupils who entered the lA in Sep- 
tember, 1913. Assume that one thousand pupils entered the lA on 
the above-mentioned date and that none dropped out and none were 
added, the original thousand remaining in school throughout. Now 
apply to these thousand in the lA the actual rate of promotion for the 
lA that occurred on January 31, 1914 (found in Table XL), which was 
76.1%. This means that 761 out of the thousand advanced to the IB 
and 239 remained in the lA. Now apply the rates that occurred on 
June 30, 1914, which were 76.0% for the lA, and 88.2% for the IB, to 
the number of pupils in the lA (761) and the IB (239), respectively. 
Of the thousand, 671 would then have been in the 2A, 272 would have 
been in the IB, and 57 would still have been in the TA. 

Similarly, application of the actual rates for the various grades that 
obtained each succeeding school term would have resulted at the end 
of each succeeding term in the distribution of the thousand pupils as 
shown in the successive columns of the table. After three terms in school, 
the thousand pupils would have been distributed in grades 2B to lA. 
In the 2B there would have been 598 pupils, about 60%, whose progress 
would have been normal, 307 or 30.7% would have been in the 2A and 
would have been one term retarded, 82 would have been in the IB, and 
two terms retarded, and 13 would still have been in the lA, and three 
terms retarded. 



87 



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88 



As we pass through successive terms we see from the table that the 
number of retarded pupils increases, as well as the degree of retardation. 
The last column in the table shows the distribution that would have 
existed at the end of the sixteenth term. Of the 1,000 pupils that started 
together in the lA, only 139, or about 14% would have completed the 
8B grade without failure, that is, with normal progress, 264 would be 
in the 8B and retarded one term, 288 would be in the 8A and two terms 
retarded, 185 in the 7B and three terms below grade, 87 in the 7A or four 
terms behind, 30 in the 6B, 9 in the 6A or six terms retarded, and 2 in 
the 5B or seven terms retarded. In other words, 139 out of the thousand 
would show normal progress, while 861 would show slow progress or retard- 
ation. The total number of non-promotions or failures for the thousand 
pupils in the 16 terms would be 1,961, or almost two non-promotions apiece. 

It is true that of the thousand, some pupils would have made more 
than normal progress and this would reduce slightly the number of 
retarded pupils. It is also true that the results are slightly exaggerated 
in one respect in that the premises of our hypothetical case assume that 
the rates of promotion apply evenly to all the pupils involved. In all 
probabilities a higher rate of promotion obtains with the normal prog- 
ress pupils, while a lower rate than the average would be the actual rate 
for the retarded. If the table were corrected for this element it would 
show a slightly greater number of pupils normal in progress, but a greater 
degree of retardation or slow progress for the retarded. The data of 
the table serves to bring out clearly the cumulative effect of non-pro- 
motion as a cause of retardation. 

In the second place, non-promotions contribute to the overcrowding 
in our schools. A great deal of our school congestion in the elementary 
schools is found in the lower grades. It is in those grades that the great- 
est number and greatest percentage of non-promotions occurred. In the 
first two years of our course there occurred on January 31, over 35,000 
non-promotions, or 38.4% of all non-promotions. On the average, 
approximately 15% of the register of these grades in the Spring term 
were made up of repeaters. 

The relation between non-promotions and an increase in register 
may be understood from the concrete illustration presented in Table 
XLII. In this table we assume that a thousand pupils enter the lA 
grade each term. It is clear that if the rate of promotions were 100%. 
the number of pupils in each succeeding grade would be always 1,000, 
provided no additional pupils were admitted and none were discharged. 
If, however, the rate of promotions were less than 100% and were to 
continue less, the number of pupils in each grade after an interval of 
time would be more than a thousand. 

In Table XLII the average rate of promotion of 88% was assumed 
to obtain for a number of years, and the resulting increase in register 
was computed. Within a short time, under the conditions assumed, 
it would be necessary to provide accommodation and instruction for 
1,137 pupils for every thousand new pupils entering the lA each term. 

Below the 7A, pupils are eliminated because of death, removal, or 
after they become sixteen, but the losses are offset by the admissions. 
In the 7A and above, the Compulsory Education Law permits pupils 
to go to work, and the withdrawals are numerous, counteracting the 
influence of the non-promotion rate as a factor of increase in register. 
A rise in the rate of non-promotions then indicates a relative increase 
in register, particularly in the first six years. 

89 



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90 



In the third place, as a corollary of the above, non-promotion has 
its financial aspect. It means repetition of instruction, the teaching; of 
the same pupils the same things over again. It means double or three 
or more times the cost for given units of instruction for all non-promoted 
pupils. At an approximate per capita cost for instruction of $33 per 
term, this means that over five million dollars must be expended for 
repetition of work for the pupils non-promoted during the last school 
year. 

This must not be interpreted to mean that the above mentioned 
sum of money could be saved. Reflection will show that if the pupils 
non-promoted had been promoted, they would still with some exceptions 
(all but the 8B pupils) be in school receiving instruction for which the 
cost would be the same. The 1,929 8B pupils who were non-promoted 
in January, and the 1,692 who failed in June, represent a waste as far as 
the elementary schools are concerned, of .$63,000 and .156,000, respec- 
tively. While on the whole non-promotion may not mean a financial 
waste or loss in the strict sense, it does mean a decreased effectiveness 
in the accomplishment of our educational efforts. 

The desirability of increasing the rate of promotion is obvious, but 
in this, as in all other matters, first consideration must be given to the 
child's needs and his abilit}^ to profit by more advanced instruction. 
By an official ukase, promotion rates can be arbitrarily increased up 
to 100%, by unofficial pressure teachers and principals may be led to 
advance pupils automatically and rates of promotion may be materially 
increased. By an intensive study of causes and conditions of school organ- 
ization and methods we may determine whether higher rates are possible 
of achievement and if so how. We must endeavor to ascertain the causes 
that operate to produce a high rate of promotion in some districts and 
in some schools and likewise the factors that cause a low rate in others. 
We must determine whether differences in promotion rates as between 
schools mean mere differences in local standards of achievement or dif- 
ferences in the abilities of pupil group or of teaching staff. That in some 
localities environment may be the determining factor may be true, and 
in large measure is the cause attributed by many for lack of success. 
But this should be shown to be a fact before the explanation is accepted, 
and then all administrative measures should be employed to offset the 
influence of such environment. 

So that the question of the possibility of increasing the rates of pro- 
motion involves not mere speculation but intensive study of the problem 
involving an analysis of all the factors and the trial of all available means. 
The increased expenditure involved in such endeavor would no doubt 
be justified by the results not only in terms of educational cost but more 
so in terms of educational effectiveness. 



91 



V— CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS AS A FACTOR OF 

PROGRESS 

One of the previous sections enumerated various factors which have 
been generally believed and partially demonstrated to be potent causes 
of retardation. It seems obvious that in the teaching of pupils in groups 
of considerable size, an economic necessity in public school systems, the 
effectiveness of instruction is in large measure conditioned by the simi- 
larity in capacities of the individuals that make up the group. The 
system of grading or classification, its basis and methods, therefore must 
affect considerably the progress of pupils, and is therefore included in 
our consideration. 

1. Our Traditional Grading System 

The ungraded school of generations ago was individualistic in the 
character of its instruction. In such a school, generally composed of a 
small number of pupils, the teacher dealt with each pupil as an indi- 
vidual, the course of study was found in or determined by the textbooks 
used, and all levels of educational achievement and school progress were 
represented within the group. There was much learning upon the part 
of the pupil, much recitation and examination upon the part of the 
teacher, but little actual teaching. 

With the development of large systems of public school instruction 
it became an economic and administrative necessity to handle the pupils 
in groups and the graded school evolved. 

Under the graded school system — 

(a) The course of study is carefully planned and provides a 

given number of parts or divisions which increase in 
the difficulty or in the logical sequence of subject 
matter. Such divisions are planned so that the aver- 
age pupil attending regularly should complete one step 
after another. 

(b) The instruction is given to the group instead of the indi- 

vidual and such instruction is uniform in character. 

(c) The effort is made to have all the pupils cover the same 

work in the same way and within the same time so 
that they will all be ready at the end of the year or 
half year for advancement to the next stage or grade. 

(d) The pupils are grouped* upon the basis of the work or por- 

tion of the course of study that has been satisfactorily 
completed at the end of a given interval, and by the 
process of promotion those ready for the next grade 
are sent ahead, while those not ready are obliged to 
repeat the work of their grade. 

(e) The promotion or advancement of the pupils is determined 

upon the basis of the teachers' judgment, supplemented 
in some cases by the results of the traditional examina- 
tions. 

92 



2. Assumptions and Implications of The Traditional System 

OF Grading 

The traditional system of grading is based upon certain fundamental 
assumptions. It assumes — 

1st. Equality in mental ability — that all children could satis- 
factorily complete all of the course of study as planned. 
2d. That uniform educational treatment would bring uniform 
results. That all children could, under normal con- 
ditions cover the work of each grade or division of 
the course of study within the limits fixed for the 
grade interval, the school year or half year. 
3d. That chronological age is a function of mental maturit3\ 
4th. That the classification of pupils involved in the periodic 
promotion process was an effective method of group- 
ing pupils according to capacity. 
The present system of grading is chronological in its implications. 
It implies that if, through the operation of the compulsory education 
law, children are brought into school in the lA grade at six years of age, 
they ought to be able to finish the work of each grade within the pre- 
scribed time and by a certain age, and should complete the entire course 
in eight years, so as to graduate from 14 to 15. Promotion is by the 
calendar, and our standards of progress are chronological, namely, the 
completion of certain grades at certain ages, and, therefore, age-grade 
statistics show the efficiency of school administration. It implies also that 
our present grades should constitute groups of pupils fairly homogeneous 
in terms of chronological ages and in terms of educational achievement. 

3. Effectiveness of Our Traditional Grading System as a 
Means of Classification of Pupils 

If the assumptions underljang our traditional grading system are 
valid, the grade groups that result therefrom should be homogeneous 
in terms of chronological age and in terms of educational achievement. 
That is, if all pupils enter at about the same age, receive practically the 
same educational treatment, progress at the same rate, they should arrive 
at the same point of the course at the same time. 

Unfortunately, the validity of such assumptions was not substan- 
tiated by the actual working out of the system. As soon as actual data 
upon the results of our system of schooling became available we were 
somewhat startled. Our statistics of elimination showed that large 
proportions of our pupils never finished the elementary course at all, 
but dropped out by the wayside or were eliminated. Our age-grade 
statistics and our progress statistics go far to prove that pupils, although 
they do enter for the most part at about the same chronological age, do 
not progress abreast, that the school grade is not static, that despite 
uniform courses of study, uniform methods and uniform time allotments, 
the minute instruction begins, the group we considered homogeneous 
tends to disintegrate, some pupils forging ahead, some lagging behind. 
There results a serious misplacement of pupils according to our adopted 
age-grade standards and there arise our overage and retardation problems . 

(a) variability in ages 

Our grading and promotion schemes, though they are largely chron- 
ological, fail to result in grade groups that are homogeneous with respect 

93 



to age. The variability in ages of the pupils in any grade group has been 
pointed out in Section II. A 6A pupil, for instance, in 35% of the cases 
was an eleven-year-old, in 21% of the cases a ten-year-old and in 21% 
a twelve-year-old. On the other hand, a twelve-year-old pupil was in only 
11% of the cases in the 6A. He may be in the first year of the elemen- 
tary course, or in the first year of high school. 

(6) VARIABILITY IN AMOUNT OF INSTRUCTON 

It may be asserted that the reason our grading does not result in 
fairly homogeneous age groups is because our pupils do not enter at the 
same age and that our grade groups are made up of pupils who have received 
practically the same amount of instruction. Our progress statistics prove 
otherwise. They show that a grade does not connote anything with 
reference to the time a pupil has been in school. The 4B grade does 
not mean a group of pupils who are completing the 4th year of their 
school life. They may have been 5, 6, 7 or 8 years in school or only 
2 or 3. On the other hand, we have seen that to say a child has been 
sixteen terms in school does not mean he has finished the 8B grade. He 
may be only in the 6th or 7th year or even in some lower grade. We 
cannot take our grade distinctions, then, to mean a grouping of pupils 
according to the time they have spent in school. 

(c) VARIABILITY IN ACHIEVEMENT 

It may be argued that the reason our grading scheme has failed 
to result in homogeneous age groups is because promotions are made 
more for merit and achievement than for mere age or time in school, and 
that our grade groups are homogeneous in respect to educational achieve- 
ment. This, however, is not the case, as has been shown over and over 
again by measurements of the achievements or abilities of grade groups. 
The following few examples taken from recent investigations by our 
Bureau are presented although their number could be increased indef- 
initely. 

(1) Variability of Pupils in Spelling Ability 

Table XLIII shows the percentage of pupils in each grade obtain- 
ing each score in a spelling test given by this Bureau. The data pre- 
sented show the wide variability of achievement upon the part of dif- 
ferent individuals in the same grade. Each grade includes children of 
all degrees of ability. Thus in the 5A grade we have three pupils, or 
0.4% of the group, who attained a perfect standing, 1.47% who spelled 
correctly 24 words, and so on down to 11, or 1.47%, who failed to get 
one word right. A more or less similar situation is to be noted in each 
of the succeeding grades. 

If we extend our analysis to other grades and compare the achieve- 
, ments of one grade with those of a higher or lower grade, we see that 
the variability in achievement has resulted in considerable overlapping 
of the grades, so much so as to render meaningless grade distinctions. 
Table XLIV shows the percentage of pupils in each grade whose scores 
exceeded or fell below the average for each grade. The table shows, 
for instance, that of the 749 children in the 5A, 33.2% obtained scores 
higher than the average of the 5B, 21.5% exceeded the average of the 
6A, 14.3% had higher scores than the average of the 6B, 10% exceeded 
the average of the 7A, and so on up to 3.2% that did better than the 
SB average. Taking the data for the SB, we see that 30.9% of the 

94 



pupils failed to reach the 8A average, 13.7% failed to equal the average 
7B score, about 10% obtained scores lower than the 7A average and so 
on down to 0.4% who failed to equal even the 5A average. 



TABLE XLlll- 



-PERCEXTAGE OF PUPILS IN EACH GRADE OBTAINING EACH SCORE- 
SPELLING TEST 



Grade.. . 
Pupils .. 
Median. 



Score in words 



25.. 
24.. 
23:. 
22.. 
21.. 
20.. 
19.. 
18.. 
17.. 
16.. 
15.. 
14.. 
13.. 
12.. 
11.. 
10.. 

9.. 

8.. 

7.. 

6.. 

5.. 

4... 

3.. 

2.. 

1.. 

0.. 



oA 

749 
10.74 



0.40 
1.47 
1.33 
2.6t 
1.60 
2.80 
4.01 
3.34 
3.87 
4.14 
3.74 
3.87 
4.81 
4.81 
5.87 
4.67 
5.74 
6.14 
5.34 
6.14 
4.67 
5.07 
4.41 
4.14 
3.47 
1.47 



5B 

802 
13.57 



1.87 
3.24 
3.37 
3.62 
4.11 
4.99 
4.11 
3.99 
5.24 
5.11 
5.11 
6.48 
5.49 
5.11 
4.36 
5.74 
3.62 
5.74 
4.74 
3.37 
2.37 
1.99 
1.99 
2.12 
1.25 
.87 



6A 
732 
16.31 



2.87 
4.10 
5.74 
7.38 
7.10 
6.97 
7.10 
7.38 
5.74 
6.01 
5.87 
5.46 
4.78 
3.82 
3.55 
2.32 
1.91 
2.46 
2.32 
2.32 
1.37 
1.09 
.82 



6B 
751 

18.64 



8.39 

10.12 

10.25 

9.72 

6.66 

6.92 

6.79 

6.54 

5.59 

4.13 

3.86 

3.73 

2.93 

2.53 

2.53 

2.40 

1.07 

1.60 

1.33 

1.07 

.40 

.80 

.53 



.13 



7A 

625 
19.74 



13.44 

12.64 

12.32 

7.36 

8.16 

7.52 

5.12 

4.96 

3.36 

2.40 

3.52 

1.92 

1.60 

1.92 

.80 

.96 

.48 

.80 

.48 

1.12 

.32 

.16 

.16 



7B 
611 
20.81 



15.55 

17.02 

12.44 

10.64 

9.00 

7.86 

5.89 

3.44 

3.27 

3.60 

2.45 

1.47 

1.47 

1.14 

1.14 

.98 

.33 

.82 

.65 

.65 



8A 
515 
22.03 



19.42 

21.94 

19.22 

9.12 

7. .38 

5.63 

5.24 

2.13 

1.75 

2.13 

1.94 

1.36 

.58 

.78 

.58 



..39 
..39 



8B 
475 
22.82 



28.62 

23.37 

18.05 

9.89 

7.37 

3.79 

3.16 

2.32 

1.05 

.84 

.42 

.42 

.42 

.63 

.21 

.42 



Totals.. 



100 



100 



100 



TABLE XLIV— THE PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS IN EACH GRADE WHOSE SCORES 
EXCEEDED OR FELL BELOW THE AVERAGE FOR EACH GRADE— SPELLING 



Grade 


No. of 
Pupils 


Grade 
5A 


Grade 
5B 


Grade 
6A 


Grade 
6B 


Grade 
7A 


Grade 
7B 


Grade 

8A 


Grade 
8B 


Aver. 
43.1 


Aver. 
54.3 


Aver. 
65.2 


Aver. 
74.0 


Aver. 
79.0 


.\ver. 
83.2 


Aver. 

88.1 


Aver. 
91.3 


5.\ 


749. +48.7 
802 —33.8 
732 — 16.1 


+33.2 
+51.2 
—28.3 
—17.3 
—10.7 

— 7.4 

— 2.7 

— 1.7 


+21.5 
+34.5 
+.54.4 
—29.0 
—20.0 
—14.9 

— 8.2 

— 3.4 


+ 14.3 
+25.3 
+41.3 
+58.9 
—30.0 
—21.6 
—12.0 
— 6.8 


+10.3 
+21.2 
+34.2 
+52.1 
+62.4 
—27.5 
—17.3 
— 9.9 


+ 7.5 
+ 16.2 
+27.2 
+45.1 
+54.2 
+64.6 
—22.9 
—13.7 


+ 3.2 
+ 8.5 
+ 12.7 
+28.8 
+.34.6 
+45.0 
+60.6 
—30.9 


+ 3.2 


5B 


+ 8.5 


6A 


+ 12.7 


6B 


751 
625 
611 
515 
475 


— 9.3 

— 5.3 

— 3.6 

— 0.8 

— 0.4 


+28.a 


7A. 


+34 6 


7B 


+45.0 


8A 


+60.6 


SB 


+69.1 












5,260 







95 



(2) Variability in Penmanship Skill 

Another illustration of how ineffective our present grading is, may 
be found in the following data taken from the results of measurements 
of penmanship ability. 

Table XLV shows the percentage of the pupils in each grade that 
exceeded the standards fixed for the various grades and also the percent- 
age of pupils whose scores fell below the standards for the various grades. 
The figures to the right of the blank squares show the percentage of pupils 
that exceeded the standards of higher grades, while the figures to the 
left show the percentage of pupils who failed to reach the standards of 
lower grades. It reads as follows — of the 1,110 pupils in 4B tested, 24% 
exceeded the 5A standard, 17.2% exceeded the 5B standard, 10.0% exceeded 
the 6A grade standard, and so on up to 1.8% who did better than the 
score set up as the standard for the 8B. Likewise for the other grades. 



TABLE XLV— PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS OF EACH GRADE WHO EXCEEDED THE 

STANDARD SCORES OF HIGHER GRADES IN PENMANSHIP OR WHO 

FELL BELOW THE STANDARD SCORES OF LOWER GRADES 



Grade 


Pupils 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


4B. 


1,110 
1,529 
1,327 
1,414 
1,481 
1,327 
1,225 
1,117 
988 


36.4 
30.2 
26.0 
17.0 
17.1 
17.2 
13.2 
7.4 


24.0 

45.4 
41.1 
31.2 
30.0 
31.0 
24.0 
14.0 


17.2 
25.1 

49.0 
36.4 
36.1 
37.0 
21.0 
17.1 


10.0 
18.1 
31.8 

48.0 
45.2 
47.2 
29.0 
24.0 


8.4 
14.8 
26.0 
28.1 

61.0 
64.0 
52.1 
39.0 


6.5 
11.5 
20.2 
23.6 
30.0 

70.0 

58.4 
47.4 


4.9 
8.7 
16.3 
18.6 
24.0 
24.0 

58.4 
47.4 


3.5 
5.8 
12.4 
13.5 
17.4 
20.0 
18.4 

64.4 


1 8 


5A 


3 4 


5B. 


7 4 


6A. 


8 5 


6B 


10 


7A 


11 


7B 


11 3 


8A... 


'>0 3 


8B... 















no 


UBK 31 

DISIBIBUIIOB BY 
UPILS ACOOKDIHS 


PKRCEKT o» see - SB 
10 PEMUAI13HIP ABIIIIY 








a 






17 


17 




U 


13 






10 




e 




Below 
4t!l Year 


4th 
Vaar 


6th 6th 7th eth Above 
Year Year Year Year Bth Yea 





96 



On the other hand, reading from the 8B hne, we find that of the 
988 pupils tested, 64% failed to reach the 8A standard, 47% failed to 
reach the 7B standard, 39% fell below the 7 A standard, and so on down 
to 7% who failed to show even fourth year ability. 

The situation is illustrated clearly by Figure 31, which shows the 
distribution of the 988 8B pupils according to the school grade they 
would be assigned to on the penmanship scores they obtained. 8%) would 
be in grades below the fourth .year, 10% would be in the fourth year, 
13% would be in the fifth year, 17% showed sixth year ability, 17% 
showed seventh year ability, 14% showed eighth year a}:»ility, and 21% 
were above the eighth year standard. 

(3) Variability in Geography 

Another illustration of the overlapping of grades under our present 
system may be found in Table XL VI, which gives the distributions of 
scores obtained in some recent testing in geography. Test III of the 
New York Standard Geography Tests was used: 

TABLE XLVI— DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN PERCENTAGES ACCORDING TO SCORES 
IN NEW YORK STANDARD GEOGRAPHY TEST III 



Score 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


20 

19 


0.09 



0.35 

1.04 

1.91 

2.95 

6.41 

10.31 

14.56 

14.65 

14.38 

12.31 

9.27 

5.11 

3.63 

1.56 

1.47 


0.08 

0.54 

1.45 

2.37 

5.66 

7.88 

12.32 

12.39 

14.84 

15.23 

11.17 

7.57 

3.98 

2.07 

1.53 

0.68 

0.23 


0.07 

0.82 

1.26 

2.89 

5.04 

8.16 

11.72 

15.06 

15.21 

13.95 

11.42 

7.94 

3.56 

1.4] 

0.67 

0.74 

0.07 


0.07 

0.07 

0.38 

1.00 

1.44 

4.32 

6.37 

10.08 

12.36 

15.24 

14.41 

12.74 

10.24 

5.61 

3.34 

1.44 

0.45 

0.15 

0.23 


0.08 

0.23 

1.08 

2.33 

3.65 

7.14 

10.02 

16.23 

15.68 

14.83 

11.18 

8.39 

. 4.66 

2.80 

1.09 

0.23 

0.23 

0.15 


0.22 

0"53 

0.98 

1.73 

3.08 

5.71 

8.94 

11.12 

14 . 65 

14.80 

14.50 

9.39 

7.74 

3.76 

1.43 

.75 

.45 

.07 

.15 


0.08 

0.08 

1.09 

1.49 

2.90 

5.63 

7.59 

10.95 

11.81 

14 . 63 

13.93 

10.88 

9.70 

4.85 

2.66 

0.94 

0.55 

0.16 

0.08 


0.25 

1.30 

2.34 

5.19 

7.53 

12.89 

12.02 

12.98 

11.59 

10.03 

9.34 

6.06 

4.24 

2.42 

1.12 

0.61 

0.09 


0.16 
1.18 


18 


2.84 


17 

16 


5.13 
8.92 


15 


8.68 


14 


12.31 


13 


13.34 


12 


13.26 


11 


9.31 


10 


10.81 


9 


5.84 


8 


3.63 


7 


2.61 


6 


1.34 


5 


0.39 


4 - 


0.16 


3 


0.08 






1 













Ql 


4.3 

7.2 
8.9 


6.8 
8.5 
10.4 


6.9 
8.7 
10.4 


7.3 
9.9 
10.9 


7.6 
9.4 
11.0 


8.1 
9.8 
11.7 


8.6 
10.4 
12.4 


11.1 
12.3 
15.4 


11.0 


Median 


12.2 


Q3 


15.2 







The table shows the medians for each grade, and the upper and lower 
quartiles. Comparison of the upper quartile (Q3) of one grade with the 
medians of higher grades shows the degree of overlapping existing. For 
instance the upper quartile of the 4B grade is 8.9 which is higher than 
the medians of the 5 A and 5B, and also higher than the first quartile 
of all grades up to 7B, inclusive. In other words, the upper 25% of the 
4B pupils did better than 50% of the 5A, 50% of the 5B and 25% of the 
pupils in the 6A, 6B, 7 A and 7B grades. 

Again 25% of the 5A did better than 50% of higher grades up to 
the 7B, inclusive. In the 6B the upper 25% did as well as the lower 

97 



25% of the 8A and 8B pupils. On the other hand the lower quarter of 
the 7B pupils did not do as well as 50% of the 5B pupils ; the lower quar- 
ter of the 7A pupils failed to equal the score of the upper 50% of the 
5 A pupils. Similarly with the other grades. While the grade medians 
show shght progress from grade to grade the variability of scores within 
the same grade and the overlapping of grade and grade render grade dis- 
tinctions of little significance. 

(4) Variability in Arithmetic 

From a recent survey of a school we may cite as another example 
the results obtained with the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamental Tests 
in Arithmetic. Each, class shows a wide range of ability, and the over- 
lapping of grades is marked. Additional instances could be given from 
other subjects in the curriculum to show the variability of achievement in 
the same grade. 

TABLE XLVII— SCORES IN ARITHMETIC, WQODY-McCALL TEST— MIXED FUNDA- 
MENTALS—OBTAINED BY PUPILS OF GRADES 4A TO 8B 



Arithmetic 
age in 
months 


4A ' 


4B 


5 A 


SB 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B i 

- 


5iS 


8B 


Total 


84-90 


2 
1 
6 
2 
8 
8 
6 
4 
1 


1 

ll" 
6 
8 
5 
2 

.... 


1 
2 
6 

8 
3 
4 
2 

1 
1 


1 
1 

2 
4 
8 
3 
6 
4 
3 

1 


1 

6 

11 
2 
5 
3 
7 
1 


2 
2 
3 
2 
6 
2 
8 
2 
2 
1 
3 

1 


2 
1 

2 
4 
1 
12 
5 

7 


1 
1 
1 

1 
4 

6 1 
3 
4 
1 
12 


1 

3 
3 

5 
4 
4 
3 


1 

2 
1 

3 
5 

2 
4 
5 
1 

1 




90-96 


3 


102 


5 


108 


• 15 


114... 


12 


120 


24 


126 


41 


132 


35 


138 


27 


144.... 


29 


150 


27 


156 


43 


162 


16 


168 


19 


174 


17 


180 


17 


186 




192 


1 






Total 


38 


33 


28 


33 


36 


34 


37 


34 3 


3 


25 


331 



Our grading system does not result in sixteen grade groups each 
made up of pupils more advanced than those in lower grade groups. 
Instead, we find a considerable percentage of pupils in each grade better 
fitted to do the work of groups two or more grades higher than a goodly 
percentage in such higher grades. 

{d) VARIABILITY IN MENTAL ABILITY 

Not only does our grading fail to group pupils according to their 
chronological ages, but it also fails to an equal or even greater degree 
to classify them according to their mental ability. Table XLVIII pre- 
sents data from the results of some recent testing conducted by this 
Bureau in one of our schools. It shows for one class in each grade, 
from 4A to 8B, the pupils distributed both according to chronological 

■ . 98 



age and according to mental age based upon the scores in the Haggerty 
Delta 2 Test. 

Each class shows a range in mental age of five years or more. It is to 
be noted that in some of the classes the range in chronological ages, while 
comparatively large is yet smaller than in the case of the mental ages. 



TABLE XLVIII— DISTRmUTION OF 350 PUPILS 

(a) BY GKADE8 AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGES 



Chron. 
age 


4A 


4B 


5A 


oB 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


Total 


lYi- 8 
8-8^ 
8J^- 9 


1 
6 






■.\ 


1 
1 


1 





1 

4 
3 


3 

3 

s 


2 
1 


1 
6 


9 - 9J4 


21 

8 


23 


91^-10 


2 
10 


10 


10 -1014 


5 


, 7 
12 


26 


10>i-ll 


9 


1 


14 

(i 


37 


11 -11,^ 


2 

1 
1 
4 




s 


23 


llH-12 




1 


2 


33 


12 -12J4 


9 
4 
3 
1 

1 

1 


S 


33 


12H-13 


2 

») 
7 
4 
4 
2 
4 


15 


40 


13 -13}^ 


6 

t; 

1 


7 
11 


35 


13H-14 


2 
4 
1 


5 
5 


32 


14 -wy-i 


3 

2 

1 


22 


143^-15 
15 -15J4 
15H-16 


5 
5 


13 

11 

5 


Total 


41 


32 


29 


36 


38 


34 


41 


36 


38 


25 


350 









(6) ACCOHDING 


rO GPADE AND MENTAL AGE9 








Mental 
























age 


4 A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


7A 


7B 


8A 


8B 


Total 


6K- 7 




1 


















1 


7 - 71-2 


1 








1 














lYi- 8 


1 


1 


















2 


8 - 8H 


2 


5 







1 


1 










13 


8^- 9 


3 


8 
3 


5 
3 

8 


1 

1 

7 


4 
2 

8 


1 
4 
3 
1 
5 
1 


1 

(5 
2 


2 

2 
1 


1 
1 

1 

1 


1 
1 
1 

1 
3 


22 


9-91^ 


5 

7 


17 


9J^-10 


4 

2 


31 


10 -10J4 


5 
6 
3 
4 

1 

2 

1 


2 


21 


lOH-U 


3 

2 
2 

1 






29 


11 -113^ 


1 
1 

1 


4 


26 


113^-12 



2 
2 
6 


2 
3 


22 


12 -123^ 


2 
4 
4 

2 

1 


9 
4 


20 


12}i-13 


6 

2 
2 

1 


3 


21 


13 -iSM 


6 
3 
3 
1 


7 
4 


35 


13J^-14 


■^ 


4 


19 


14 -1434 


5 


19 


1434-15 


8 


24 


15 -1534 
















2 


2 


4 


8 


15H-16 
















4 


6 




10 


16 -1634 
















2 


1 




3 


163^-17 


















2 




2 


17 -173^ 


















1 




1 


Total 


41 


32 


29 


36 


38 


34 


41 


36 


38 


25 


350 



99 



Table XLIX presents for comparative purposes a summary of the two 
preceding tables showing the number of pupils underage, normal age 
and overage, chronologically and also mentally. In each case underage 
means ''above grade," normal age means "at grade," and overage means 
"below grade." According to chronological age-grade standards, the 
entire group shows 13.1% underage, 47.7% normal age, and 39.1% over- 
age pupils. According to grade standards based on mental age there 
are 35.1% underage pupils, 22.8% normal, and 42.0% overage pupils. 



TABLE XLIX— DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS' ACCORDING TO AGE-GRADE STATUS 





Chronological age 


Mental age 




Under 


Normal 


Over 


Under 


Normal 


Over 


4A 


7 
2 

3 

2 
1 
4 
8 
14 
5 


29 
12 
19 
20 
17 
5 
16 
21 
18 
10 


5 
18 
10 
13 
19 
28 
21 
7 
6 
10 


7 
18 
22 
11 

18 
16 
15 
5 
4 
7 


12 
6 
4 

10 
7 
5 

13 
6 

11 
6 


22 


4B 


8 


5A - 


3 


5,B 


15 


6A 


13 


6B 


13 ' 


7A ' 


13 


7B . 


25 


8A 

8B 


23 
12 






Totals 


46 


167 


137 


123 


80 


147 






Percent. . 


13.1 


47.7 


39.1 


35.1 


22.9 


42.0 



A closer analysis of one class group as shown in the following table 
gives some indication as to the reason for the- difference in percentages. 

The table presents a distribution of the pupils, both according to 
mental age and according to chronological age. The figures in the squares 
give the I. Q.'s. It is to be noted that while the range chronologically is but 
two and one-half years, the range of mental ages is seven years. Assuming 
the same standards for mental ages as for chronological, we may deter- 
mine the underage, normal age and overage pupils by ruling lines to indi- 
cate the standards. According to chronological ages the class is quite 
homogeneous. It has out of the 41 pupils, 29 that are of normal age, 7 
that are underage one year and less, and 5 pupils that are overage but 
one-half year. On the other hand, according to inental age there are 
but 12 normal, while 7 are under age and 22 are overage, or older men- 
tally than the standard mental age for the grade. The vertical and hor- 
izontal lines divide the class into nine groupings as follows: 



100 



Division 


Number of 
pupils 


Chronological 
age status 


Mental 
age status 


Real grade status 
according to 
mental age 


A .' 


3 
3 
1 
2 
9 
18 
2 

3 


Underage 

Underage 

Underage 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Overage 

Overage 

Overage 


Underage 

Normal 

Overage 

Underage 

Normal 

Overage 

Underage 

Normal 

Overage 


Accelerated 


B 


C 




D 




E 




F 




G 




H 




I 









TABLE L— DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN A 4A CLASS ACCORDING TO CHRONO- 
LOGICAL AND MENTAL AGES 

MENTAL AGES 







7 


714 


8 


8J^ 


9 


9V2 


10 


i0}4 


11 


11^ 


12 


12}4 


13 


IW2 








to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


Totals 






7y2 


8 


814 


9 


9H 


10 


10 ^ 


11 


113^ 


12 


12J^ 


13 


13M 


14 






8 - S>-2 




92 

A 






B 












c 








• 1 




8K- 9 






93 
96 




107 
106 


111 


110 































102 


105 




111 


120 


124 
























99 


103 


109 


120 


120 


126 














9 - 914 








94 


103 


108 
108 


115 


116 


125 


126 






142 


148 


21 


a 






D 






E 


103 




111 






F 










t 


914-W 


75 










101 


107 


109 




119 






141 




8 


a 
2 


































1 

s 


10 -lOj'2 








S6 
85 






100 


105 






121 


-..! 











lOJ^-ll 




G 






H 












I 












11 -11}^ 






























.... 




11J^2-12 
























.... 










Totals 


1 


1 


2 


3 


5 


7 


5- 


6 


3 


4 


1 




2 


1 


41 



101 



It would appear from the above, that chronological age is no cri- 
terion of mental ability, and, therefore, chronological underage or over- 
age is no true indication of the acceleration or retardation that may 
exist. The group in division B are underage in chronological age, but 
are mentally normal for their grade. The C group are also underage 
chronologically, but have the mental ability of older pupils and there- 
fore instead of being accelerated are actually below the grade where their 
ability warrants placement. 

The failure of our lockstep system to effect a proper grading of 
pupils results in a serious waste of energy and time upon the part of 
both teacher and pupil. Under such a system, the "individual is lost 
in the mass." The efforts of the conscientious teacher to modify her 
teaching to fit the needs of her pupils are practically fruitless. The 
weaker pupils make unsuccessful attempts to meet the demands upon 
them, and the resulting failure oft repeated means personal discourage- 
ment, loss of self esteem and self confidence. As one writer puts it, 
the system trains the pupils thoroughly in failure. While it tends to 
work beyond a safe, limit the slow but persistent pupil, it fails to work 
the bright pupils up to their mental capacity. Under the traditional sys- 
tem, the instruction of the teacher "mystifies the lower quarter and 
bores the upper quarter." It does not facilitate prordotions, it prevents 
the shortening of the elementary school period for the more competent 
and. it is responsible for much of the pupil elimination. 

The lack of effectiveness of our traditional grading system in class- 
ifying pupils is due in large measure, as has already been implied, first 
to the fallacious assumption that all children are practically alike in 
physical, mental and other traits. Grouping pupils according to, an 
alphabetical arrangement of names, or according to their size or their 
ages, or by means of a simple mathematical division of the grade register 
by the average class register of forty, results in class units that are any- 
thing but homogeneous in respect to ability. 

Secondly, the disregard in such grouping of the individual differ- 
ences that obtain, ite moreover carried over into actual instruction. Uni- 
form teaching, uniform requirements as to course of study, in short, uniform 
educational treatment with a group more or less heterogeneous, is bound 
to result in magnifying the individual differences which it ignores. 

Thirdly, the failure of our promotion scheme as a periodic means of 
re-classification of pupils according to achievement or ability is due to 
the fact that it is largely chronological, that it is based in part upon the 
judgment of teachers, which may be not only inadequate, but more fre- 
quently inaccurate, or upon examinations which; because of their sub- 
jective characteristics, are invalid measures of ability. 

Fourthly, our grading is ineffective even in those cases where it is 
based upon accurate determination of the present educational status 
of pupils in that it is static and fails to group pupils according to their 
ability to learn. 

4. Remedial Measures That Have Been Tri!ed 

That the reader may not conclude from the foregoing that our teach- 
ing and supervising staff have failed to recognize the need for a better 
grading scheme and also the necessity for better adaptation of our edu- 
cational processes to individual needs and abilities, it may be desirable 
and of interest to summarize briefly some of the attempts that have 

102 



been made in New York in the effort to effect an adjustment between 
school and child. 

New York City was the first school system to publish "overage" 
statistics, and by so doing, to recognize and call attention to the exist- 
ence of the problem. Since then continuous attention has been paid 
to the problem in the endeavor to increase the probability of all our 
pupils completing the elementary course. 

The following is not a complete summary, but an outline of the 
various measures attempted since 1903, as recorded in the annual reports 
of the Superintendent (*f Schools. It will not follow a chronological order, 
but will attempt to group roughly the various measures taken accord- 
ing to their chief chai'acteristics, into the following divisions: 

(a) vSegregation of Physically Handicapped Pupils into Special 

Classes. 
(6) Segregation of Mentally Defective and (3ther Atypical 

Pupils. 

(c) Classes for Non-English Speaking Foreigners. 

(d) Efforts to Increase the Progress of Overage and Retarded 

Pupils. 

(e) Provision for More Rapid Progress of Bright Pupils. 
(/) Classification and Grading of Pupils. 

(g) Individualizing Class Teaching-. 

(h) Modification of the Course of Study. 

(i) Miscellaneous. 

(a) SEGREGATION OF PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED PUPILS INTO SPECIAL 

CLASSES 

One of the first steps taken in our attempt to adjust the school to 
the needs of the pupils is found in the policy adopted of segregating in 
special classes those children who, by reason of some physical defect, can- 
not profitably follow the regular course of instruction, nor hope to prog- 
ress at the rate of the physically normal pupils. It is obvious that pupils 
with physical defects, even though in many instances such pupils are 
mentally normal, require a modified form of schooling, more individual 
instruction and greater emphasis upon physical care and development 
than is possible in the regular grades. New York City has always led 
in the recognition given to the needs of such pupils as the following will 
show: . 

(1) Extension of Physical Examination of Pupils to Discover 

Physical Defects, 1903. 

(2) Classes for Crippled Children Organized 1904. 

(3) Classes for Deaf and Dumb Children Organized 1907. 

(4) Classes for Blind Established 1908. 

(5) Investigation conducted, 1909, by Leonard Ayres for 

Superintendent of Schools to determine the relation of 
physical defects to school progress. 

(6) Classes Established for Anemic Pupils, 1909. 

(7) Classes Authorized for Tuberculous Pupils, 1909. 

(8) Classes for Stammerers and Stutterers Organized, 1909. 

(9) Classes for Pupils with Infectious Eye Diseases, and with 

Defective Vision, 1913. 
(10) Classes for Pupils Suffering from Serious Heart Affections, 
1915. 

103 



(6) SEGREGATION OF MENTALLY DEFECTIVE AND OTHER ATYPICAL PUPILS 

It was very early recognized that the school population included 
numbers of pupils (a small proportion) who possessed such a limited 
mentality as to make it impossible for them to profit by the regular 
classroom procedure. Not only did such pupils themselves fail to bene- 
fit by the regular instruction, but their presence in such normal group 
retarded materially the progress of the others. In addition to the men- 
tally handicapped there were found a small number of pupils who from 
varioufe causes were not amenable to regular class discipline. Among 
these were found the truants, juvenile delinquent^, etc. The following 
special provision was therefore made for such pupils. 

(1) Classes for Mentally Defective Pupils Organized in 1903. 

(2) Disciplinary Classes, 1903. 

(3) First Probationary School Opened, 1906. 

(4) More Systematic Provision for Psychological and Medical 

Examination of Exceptional Children, 1907. 

(5) Parental School Opened for the more Modern Care and 

Instruction of Truants, 1909. 

(6) Classes for Neurotic Children, 1919. 

(c) CLASSES FOR NON-ENGLISH SPEAKING FOREIGNERS 

In no other school system in the country has the problem of the 
foreign non-English-speaking pupil been so serious as in New York. 
Other school systems have foreign populations it is true, but New York, 
the gateway to the countzy, has been subject to the periodic influx of 
immigrants by the thousands. In terms of absolute numbers and in 
terms of relative proportions, the problem of providing for the foreign 
born pupil that our school system has had to meet is not equaled in any 
other city. Such pupils, it was found, contributed to a very large extent 
to our overage groups. Special classes were organized in 1904 and have 
since been conducted to provide the special instruction needed by such 
pupils. It is to be kept in mind that not only has it been necessary in 
the case of such pupils to remove the existing language handicap, but 
in a very large number of cases, where the pupils were illiterate and had 
had absolutely no previous schooling, the school has had to attempt to 
make up for such lack of educational opportunity bj^ special effort within 
the few years that such pupils remained under its influence. In view 
of the difficulties encountered the success of our schools has been marked. 

(d) EFFORTS TO INCREASE THE PROGRESS OF OVERAGE AND 
RETARDED PUPILS 

From the date of the first report on overage pupils in 1904 serious 
efforts were made in the attempt to reduce the number of such pupils 
and to extend their educational experience as much as possible before 
elimination removed them from the influence of the school, 

(1) Special Classes for Overage Pupils — 1906 

The efforts to advance overage pupils as rapidly as possible were systema- 
tized to some extent in 1906, by the estabUshment of special grades in which 
overage pupils received special instruction. "Classes of Grade D were intended 
to accommodate pupils who are soon to reach the upper limits of compulsory 
attendance and to apply for employment certificates. Classes of Grade E are 

104 



to affDnl pii]jils of the fifth and sixth year grades who hope to graiUiate, an 
0})portunity to make special preparation for admission to tlie 7A grade." 

The problem involved is well described in the following extract from the 
report of Associate Superintendent MeleiXEy for 1906: 

"Many of the schools are being organized to provide full classes of chil- 
dren well up to grade and special classes of children neetling more indivi- 
dual attention. There is very little 'keeping back' pupils who are not quite 
qualified for promotion. We are coming to realize that slow or backward 
pui)ils need more than the schedule time to complete the work of a grade, 
and nuist be permitted to take the requisite time, and to keep advancing. 
We find, also, that the slow children who are older than their fellows of equal 
grade are not able to accomplish the work laid down in the course of study 
in all its ami)lifications and enrichment, nor to comprehend instruction 
requiring larger intelligence and general home cultiu-e. For such children 
an abridged course of study within the limitations of the prescribed course 
is necessary. It is evident to all observers and students of school man- 
agement that children whose progress anrl development have been retarded 
must have more time in which to accomplish a prescribed course of study, 
or if given only the prescribed time must be held only to a limited amount 
of acquirement. The children of this character are" liable to drop out of 
the elementary school before the end of the sixth, seventh or eighth grades. 
The highest interests of the children require that they attain at least the 
elements of the required studies and receive careful, thorough training in 
the school arts. 

"With these ends in view the superintendents and principals have dili- 
gently studied the best means of organizing classes and laying out the work. 
We have in our schools today many special classes organized to meet the 
special needs of such pupils. We are eliminating from regular classes the 
pupils incapable of attaining satisfactory results, thus relieving the average 
and brighter pupils of the impediments to their progress and making it pos- 
sible for the teachers to direct their energies to the accomplishment of the 
highest good to all. I am of the opinion that no regular classes should con- 
tain any pupils who are unable to do the work required of theu grade, and no 
pupils should be forced to do the work beyond their limited powers. I am 
convinced that teachers will be relieved of strain and nervous breakdown, 
when they are required to accomplish only so much work as the capacity 
of the pupils intrusted to them can reasonably be expected to undertake." 

{2) Special Classes in Vacation Schools — 1908 

Additional opportunity to recover lost gi-ound was provided for the over- 
age pupils and for foreign pupils by the establishment in Smumer Vacation 
Schools of special classes, which in more recent years have been designated as 
Opportunity Classes. Such classes also permitted pupils who had failed of 
promotion in the preceding June to receive special instruction and as a result 
to secure trial promotion at the opening of regular sessions in the Fall. Thou- 
sands of pupils each year have in this way made up their failure and thus have 
avoided the loss of a term which otherwise would have been required in the 
repetition of the grade involved. 

(S) Classification of Pupils in Overage Classes into Classes of Bright, Normal and Dull 

Pupils— 1909 

(4) Typical Plans and Devices Adopted to Help the Failing or Backward Pupil to Succeed, 
by Giving Him Special Individual Attention, Additional Time, etc. — 1911 

(a) Morning instruction before school hours, plan usetl in P. S. 147, Man- 
hattan, as worked out by Dr. Ettinger: 

a. The teachers of Grades Five to Eight report the names of pupils 
who are backward in language and number. 

b. Such pupils are furnished with cards and are notified that, if 
they desire to study in the morning before 9 o'clock, they may report 
at rooms designated on cards at S.lo. 

c. Each child's card is punched as he enters the study room by 
a teacher who volunteers to take charge. 

d. At 8.40 the regular teachers visit the rooms to inspect the work 
accomplished and to give assistance and explanations. 

(6) Coaching of backward pupils by pupil teachers, part time teachers, etc. 

105 



(c) Special drill by regular teacher and classwork by pupil-teacher, 1911 
"A pupil-teacher is each day assigned to six or seven different classes, 
on a regular schedule arranged in half-hour periods. Such an assignment 
is continued to the same classes for at least two weeks, and longer if neces- 
sary. The pupil teacher is not given, as is too often the case, the difficult 
task of working with the backward pupils, but conducts, with the bright 
pupils of each class, a lesson which the regular teacher has carefully out- 
lined, while the regular teacher takes out of the class the few backward 
pupils for special drill in the subjects in which they are deficient. Thus it 
happens that each teacher has half an hour free each day for the purpose of 
helping the backward children." 

(5) Reorganization Plans 

Another plan adopted by a number of principals involved the reorganiza- 
tion of the school or classes. The following is taken from the report for 1911 : 

"Every pupil who fell below during the months of February and March 
was interviewed individually by the principal or assistant to principal and 
communication was held with the parent." 

"On the twenty-first of April the school was reorganized. All pupils 
whose promotions were at all doubtful were placed in one class of a grade in 
which an abridged program was put into operation, special instruction being 
given in the major subjects in which individual pupils showed weakness. 
The instruction was individual in many cases. Pupils were coached to over- 
come their deficiencies." 

"The results have proved the efficiency of the plan. The holdovers 
have been cut down to at least one-half of the usual number, while many 
pupils have done the work of two grades in one term in the bright class." 

{6) Double Time Plan 

The Double Time Plan as described below or with some minor modifica- 
tions has been tried in a number 'of schools since 1911: 

"First. Classification of Pupils — At promotion time, pupils promoted 
to each grade are classified on the basis of weakest subjects; in grades where 
there are two classes, the classes formed would be graded on the basis of 
weakness in arithmetic and in language. In grades having three classes, 
classifications would be made on the basis, of weakness in arithmetic, lan- 
guage, and manual training subjects." 

"Second. Designation of Classes. — The new classes are designated and 
known as 

4B Arithmetic 
4B Language 
4B Manual Training 
instead of as 4B1, 4B2, 4B3. 
"Third. Explanation to Pupils — To each class is explained the reason 
for this designation of that class. To every pupil in each class is made clear 
his or her special deficiency, and the opportunity that this class offers to 
him, or to her, for remedying it, not only for this term, but for all time. 

"Fourth. Assignment of Teachers — In the term's assignment of teachers, 
great oare is taken to place in charge of each specially designated class, a 
teacher whose special skill of presentation lies along the line of the subject 
for which each class is named. 

"Fifth. Programs — Assignment of Time to Subjects. A sufficient 
amount of time is taken from the unassigned time, to give to each specially 
designated class double-time for the study of that subject for which that 
class is named. 

"Sixth. Advantages: 

a. Every pupil in the school receives double time in his or her 
weakest subject. 

b. As comparatively few pupils are very deficient in more than 
two subjects, the elimination of one of these deficient subjects practically 
secures every pupil's promotion. 

c. One term in a double-time language class and one term in a 
double-time arithmetic class often transforms a C or D pupil into an 
A pupil. 

106 



(/. It saves pupils much loss of time. In one term a i)upil received 
the same amount of instruction in his or her weakest subject as he would 
have received if he had been left back. Thus the same result is attained 
and six months are often saved for the pupil. 

e. It tends to encourage the pupils to e.xert themselves to remedy 
deficiencies and to make both pupils and parent feel that the school 
has the children's welfare at heart." 

(7) Caring for Special Pupils in Regular Classes 

Another scheme mentioned in the Superintendent's report is the jilan 
adopted to take care of backward pupils in the regular classes. The congestion 
in some sections of the citj' made it impossible to form special classes and made 
it necessary to resort to a plan of this kind to meet the situation. 

"The daily time assigned to a topic is, when necessary, divided into a 
class period and a sectional period. During the former, the class is taught 
as a unit, the teacher noting on a desk pad the points in which further instruc- 
tion is needed and the names of the pupils requiring it. 

"Unless additional explanations are required by the majority of the 
pupils, the correction of deficiencies is postponed to the sectional period. 
During this time the special pupils are aided individually or in small groups 
by the teacher assisted by some pupils, while the other members of the class 
perform assigned tasks. The sectional period varies from da}^ to day and 
from topic to topic in the different classes. Individual and small groups 
either study from the text -book, or are helped b}' the teacher or bj- pupil 
assistants as the immediate circumstances and conditions may warrant. 

"The teacher is constantly on the watch for the special pupil and his 
particular needs, but does not permit her search to interrupt the regular 
class work unless it "appears that the class as a whole has failed to master 
some detail. During the course of a regular lesson intended to teach such 
preparatory and applied work as is needed by the majority of the class, 
she notes the special pupils; the examination of the written homework and 
the class revision of tasks wTitten in school, disclose the individuals or groups 
that need help and their particular deficiencies. She likewise endeavors to 
ascertain the cause for the gi'oup or class deficiencies in any particular phase 
of the work, in order to correct them and to secure proficiencj- in the work 
at least cost to the class as a whole, 

"The special pupils make iip. their deficiencies not only daring the time 
devoted to sectional periods, but also during out-of-session time. Many 
arrive before 9 A. M. and 1 P. M., going directly to their classrooms where 
they are helped by the teacher or her pupil assistants. Others remain after 
school for the same purpose. Home work adapted to the special need of 
the individual is assigned, a pupil weak in fractions bringing in ten examples 
in this tojiic, another making a \\Titten abstract of some history or geog- 
raphy work in which he has shown a deficiency, and another some grammar 
exercises. The home work assigned to a class as a whole is made fight in 
order that pupils maj^ have time for their individual work, which varies 
considerably." — 1911 Annual Report. 

(S) The Batada Plan 
The report of one District Superintendent mentioned the adoption in some 
of his schools of the Batavia Plan. 

Of the above-mentioned measures the establishment of special 
classes was ofhcially adopted and employed throughout all schools. The 
other plans and schemes were the result of the initiative and ingenuity 
of principals and district superintendents in various schools and districts. 
It is also to be noted that many of the measures mentioned in the other 
divisions of this report related also to the progress of backward pupils. 

(e) PROVISION FOR MORE RAPID PROGRESS OF BRIGHT PUPILS 

As far back as 1905 the annual reports of district superintendents 
contain numerous references to the recognized necessity of permitting 
the brighter pupils to advance at as rapid a pace as their abilities war- 
ranted. The following is tj^pical: 

107 



"Of at least equal importance (as the progress of the slow pupils) is the 
necessity of giving special attention to pupils capable of advancing rapidly 
and of doing more work than the minimum requirements call for or of doing 
the work prescribed in less than regular time. Pupils who have inherited 
more than average ability, who are prompt and regular in attendance, earnest 
and industrious in their application and who possibly receive considerable 
assistance at home should be allowed, even required to break from the fixed 
lockstep and gain time in completing the elementary course. This may 
be done by organizing classes of holdovers and pupils of exceptional ability 
promoted from the grade below who shall complete two term's work in 
one term or three term's work in two terms. — Report of Associate Super- 
intendent Edson. 

Provision made in this direction included: 

(1) Organization of "Plus" Classes — 1906 

Teachers continued with their classes for more than one term, and pupils 
covered the work of three terms in two. 

(2) Organization of Rapid Advancement Classes 
(S) Flexibility in Promotions — 1910 

Under this plan promotions of quahfied pupils during the term were encour- 
aged and supplemented the periodic promotions at the end of the term. 

In 1910 Dr. Meleney wrote: 

"We are coming to insist that pupils must be promoted when they are 
quahfied. When the class promotions occur any pupils who are unprepared 
should be so classified that they may continue the work and be promoted 
as soon as possible. No child should be obliged to take an extra term to 
accomplish work that he may be able to do in one or more months. To 
carry out this idea special and group work is necessary. So, also, the 
individuals who are prepared to advance ahead of their classmates during 
a term, must have the opportunity of doing so through special classes or 
groups. We are studying these problems and devising a more elastic 
system in order to satisfy the needs of the greatest number of pupils." 

(4) Typical Schemes Adopted in Some Schools and Districts to Facilitate Rapid Progress 

(a) Probationary Promotion. 

Districts 13 and 15 (District Superintendent Franklin) reported 
the use in 1913 of a "probation system of advancement of bright pupils 
and of accelerating backward ones." Under this plan which involved 
a more general systematic and intelligent application of the old "trial 
promotions" bright pupils were promoted to the next grade and received 
special attention at the hands of the teacher of such grade. Similarly, 
at the end of a school term pupils who ordinarily were scheduled to be 
left back were promoted on probation. The receiving teacher through 
additional attention, made every effort to enable such pupils to main- 
tain themselves in the higher grades. 
(6) Subject Promotion. 

Under another plan bright pupils were permitted to recite in classes 
in certain subjects in grades beyond their average grade. 

(5) Experimental High School for Pupils Who Have Completed the Sixth Grade in 
Elementary Schools and Who Are of Conspicuous Ability — 1914 

Under this plan pupils of conspicuous abihty are able to complete the work 
of the seventh and eighth years and also of the four years high schools in less 
than six years. 

(6) Rapid Advancement Classes in Junior High Schools — 1915 

The present organization of the Junior High Schools includes provision 
for rapid advancement classes for bright pupils received from sixth-year grades 
of neighboring schools. In such classes pupils are enabled to finish the seventh 
and eighth years of the elementary and the first year of high school in two years. 
A feature of the plan in many schools is the selection of these bright pupils by 
means of intelligence tests. 

108 



(7) Termnn Classes 

Classes of this type have been estabhshed in a number of schools and pro- 
vide for the exceptionally bright or gifted child (selected by Intelligence Tests) . 
An enriched curriculum besides more rapid progress is characteristic. 

(/) CLASSIFICATION AND GRADIxNG OF PUPILS 

In addition to the various plans mentioned in the foregoing, all 
of which involved to a greater or less degree the classification or reclassi- 
fication of pupils, the following indicate the recognition of the need for 
a better grading of pupils than that provided by the traditional plan: 

{1) Extract, Report of Associate Superintendent Haaren—1909 

"In the organization of larger schools some of the features of insti-uc- 
tion in the smaller schools usually disappear. Among these is the liberal 
grading by which one teacher has several grades, and there is substituted 
the close grading by which a teacher has pupils whose ability is considered 
equal. But the tendency of close grading is toward mass and mechanical 
teachirig unless great care is exercised. I should Uke to see an arrangement 
by which teachers, if not teaching two grades, would at least teach two 
groups in a class. If a class is well-taught, that is, if the pupils are stimu- 
lated or encouraged to work to the limit of their ability, individual differ- 
erences will appear in the work accomplished early in the term, and these 
differences will increase as the work progresses. The suitable provision 
for individual differences is in grouping the pupils according to ability and 
attainment, for unless some such provision is made, bright pupils will be 
kept waiting for slower ones, and the slow pupils will not make the effort ' 
to do work which is somewhat difficult, but not beyond their powers. 
Teachers occasionally claim to teach to the 'average' of the class, but the 
usual effect of such teaching is to cultivate, habits of listlessness, if not of 
laziness, in the pupils who are able to do more than 'average' work." 

(^) A Proposed Triple System of Grading 

In a very suggestive report prepared by Associate Superintendent Straub- 
enmuller in 1910 the proposal is made that a triple system of grading be adopted 
as a solution of the overage and retardation problems. The report submitted 
in 191G so aptly discusses conditions that in some .systems have been a matter 
of only recent recognition that extracts from the report are reproduced herewith : 
"Uniformity has for years been the idol of education-^uniformity in 
courses of study, uniformity in methods of teaching, uniformity of grades, 
uniformity of requirements for promotion and graduation as if children were 
not of different types and degrees of mentality. Swift, in 'The Mind in 
Making,' says: 'The dominant sin of the schoolroom is the attempt to make 
children homogeneous. Uniformity in teachers and pupils ahke arrests men- 
tal processes and tends to dulness.' 

"The insistence upon uniformity for all is wrong to those below the 
average in understanding and power. Uniformity assumes that children 
of an age can be taught the same thing in the same way in the same period 
of time. The attempt to carry out this assumption has resulted in injury 
to many children, has been the prolific cause of retardation, and has raised 
the cry of overburdening. Experience and statistics of promotion and of 
ages of children leaving school prove that it is impossible for all children 
to reach the same goal at the same time through uniformity of insti^uction . 
As long as 'physical, psychological, pathological and social conditions vary 
in children just so long will the ability of children to profit by instruction 
vary.' The more pupils diverge from the normal in their physical and psy- 
chological make-up, the more harmful is it to condemn them to mass instruc- 
tion in the regidar grades. Children's capabihties and capacities are not 
uniform and can not be made uniform, and hence some scheme of grading 
must be adopted that recognizes these differences in children. 

"Under the present conventional system of grading and classification 
we find in the same classes the talented and the talentless, the specially 

109 



gifted and the poorly endowed, the 'mentally and physically right' and the 
mentally and physically wrong, the well-fed and the poorly nourished, the 
overage and the underage, the well-trained and the ill-trained, the regular 
and the irregular. We also find children of different types of mind and of 
different degrees of mentality; some with educational advantages at home, 
and others without any; some whose mental powers become quickly exhausted, 
and others who have endurance. This state of affairs is evidently wrong. 

"It is true that in some large school systems the bUnd, the deaf, the 
mentally defective, the tubercular and the anemic are being excluded from 
the regular and conventional school organization and assigned to special 
classes. But even if that be done, there still remains a c^ass of children in 
the grades who cannot follow the instruction given in those grades. These 
children are not atypical. They form a class by themselves in between the 
normal children and the four-sensed and mentally defective children. They 
are the children who are left back, who are obhged to repeat grades, who 
upset the time program and impede the progress of the normal pupil; they 
are the children who do not meet the requirements of the prescribed course 
of study; they are the ones who become disheartened at their lack of success; 
they lose interest and fail; they do not graduate, nor do they receive the 
well-rounded education and training resulting from finishing a prescribed 
course of study and of training. 

"There should be a triple system of grading: (1) the conventional sys- 
tem for the normal child; (2) the advancement system for the child that has 
not been able to keep up with its fellow-pupils; (3) the ungraded system for 
the mentally defective child. With the exception of the bhnd, the deaf and 
the idiotic, no elimination from the regular grades should take place until 
after the first yea;r. This is recommended because some children adapt 
themselves very slowly to the school regime. It is difficult to determine their 
exact mental status, and they should be given a fair trial. At the end of 
the first year after the elimination of the mentally defective according to 
the by-laws, the entire number of left-backs should be organized into a class 
called Advancement Class 2A. This Advancement Class 2A would then 
consist of pupils who are normal mentally but who are backward. The cause 
of this backwardness may be late admission, sickness, neglect at home, arrested 
development, laziness, stupidity, or a combination of any two or more of 
these causes. 

"The children who have stood the classroom test, i., e., the perfectly 
normal ones, would advance from grade to grade, following the regularly 
prescribed course of study until they complete it, as they do now. The 
pupils placed in the advancement class would follow a modified course of 
study in which great emphasis would be laid on the sequential subjects . 
After a term in such advancement class a bright child would catch up on such 
subjects and could be restored to the class to which it belonged originally, 
thus losing no time. 

"The other children, the naturally stupid and those who have not yet 
caught up, but who have done fairly well, could be promoted to the next 
Advancement Class 2B. 

"Whenever a pupil in the conventional system fails of promotion, even 
in the upper grades, he is to be placed in an advancement class whose numer- 
ical denomination is the same as the class he would have been placed in 
if he had been promoted. Should this pupil do satisfactory work here, 
he may be returned to the class in which he would have been, if he had not 
fallen behind with his work. 

"Some of the children will remain throughout .their school course in 
the advancement system. They will in course of time reach the 8B class 
in that system. Inasmuch as they have never done the regularly pre- 
scribed work, they will not be entitled to a diploma, but must content them- 
selves with a certificate." 

Advantages of Triple System of Grading 

"The advantages of this triple system of grading are many. It tends 
to promote individual and group teaching and training. It enables the 
principal to transfer the obstructionist. It is a boon to children who are 
quickly fatigued by mental strain, for the smaller register will make it pos- 
sible for the teacher to provide work adapted to, the backward child, in whom , 
as a rule, mental fatigue quickly shows itself. The so-called left-backs will 
not be compelled to cover the same work in toto, which always involves 

110 



repetition of some work already mastered. The advancement i:)upil feels 
that he is advancing; he will nearly always be in a class with pupils of his 
own age and approximately of his own capabilities. Attention will be paid 
to the needs of the child, rather than to that fetish — graduation. 'What 
is a child capable of learning and not what should it know,' can be made 
the guiding principle of the proposed .system. It recognizes the fact that 
children differ as to capabilities and capacities, and that there ar(> some 
naturally stupid pupils who should not be asked to do what they can not do. 
Pupils can be readily transferred from one system to the other, and frequently 
without the loss of a term's work. If any doubt arises as to the enrollmeiit 
of a child in a defective class, it may be given a chance to recover itself in 
an advancement class. A pupil in a defective class who has improved may 
be sent to an advancement cla.ss and succeed there, although his assigimient 
under present conditions to a normal class would not have benefitted him. 
It gives a left-back a chance to catch up. The absence of haste, of driving, 
and of a multiplicity of subjects is particularl} beneficial to the child ner- 
vously afflicted." 

Dangers of the Triple System of Grading 

"One great danger of .this system, is that teachers are apt to regard 
the main object of the scheme as being to restore children of the advance- 
ment classes to the regular grades. Such a conception of the main object 
would again lead to pressure of work and overburdening. It' will be seen 
that boys of the same age may be kept abreast of each other, one in a class 
of the normal system and the other in a corresponding class of the advance- 
ment system, each doing work best adapted to his capabilities." 

(3) Organization of Entire School on the Basis of Ability of Pupils 

"The results have been markedly better progress on the part of pupils 
and an increased appreciation of the possibilities for such progress by pupils 
on the part of teachers. All the classes are mixed and the teachers rotate 
in instructing ''rapid advancement,' 'normal' and 'slow' classes, as far as 
possible the more difficult classes being assigned to the stronger teachers " — 
Report of District Superintendent McGray — 1911. 

(4) Classification or Pupils According to Weakest Subjects 
See Double Time Plan. 

(.5) Grouping of Pupils According to Physiological Age 

"A number of schools reported the use in 1913 of physiological age as 
the basis of grading and the modification of the course of study so as to appeal 
to pupils of more mature development." — District Superintendents Dwyer, 
Franklin and Stracllan. 

(6') Grouping on the Basis of the Results of Binet Tests 

"A number of districts (District Superintendent Franklin and District 
Superintendent Dwyer), reported the use in 1913 of the Binet Test to pro- 
vide the b.qsis of grading pupils and also the use in other schools of selected 
group tests of intelligence." 

(g) THE NEED OF INDIVIDUALIZING CLASS TEACHING RECOGNIZED 

Extracts from reports of superintendents: 

(1) "To my mind the greatest problem in elementary education is how to 
reconcile class teaciiing with individual teaching, how to teach an individual in 
the presence of a class so that it shall react profitably on the class leaving 
no one idle or inattentive." — District Superintendent Shimer, 1907. 

(2) Group Work in the Recitation gradually .supplanting the "class unit" 
system. — District Superintendent Richman reported that — 

"This method in addition to enabling the teacher to discover and remove 
the difficulties which retard the progress of the individual has developed in 
the children a sense of responsibility, a decided degree of self-dependence, and 

111 



an ability to use a book without waiting for minute directions. In the teacher 
it has checked the talking or lecture method so that the children may work 
quietty and independently without the constant interruption of comment and 
criticism by the teacher." 

(3) Report of Associate Superintendent Edson — 1910: 

"Individual Instruction and Group Teaching." "One of the most serious 
criticisms that is made of modern education, especially in cities where the attend- 
ance is large and the classes are closely graded, is the tendency to recognize 
large groups of pupils rather than individuals. Mass teaching is in the line of 
least resistance; and as a consequence many a teacher centres her attention 
but httle on individuals; she measures her success by the progress of the class 
rather than of individual members. 

"The object of school classification is to place pupils in right relation to 
work and to each other, and to facilitate progress through the grades. Differ- 
ences are sure to exist in any class, in the ages and maturity of pupils, in their 
abiUty and progress, in their regularity of attendance and power of appUca- 
tion, and in the assistance rendered at home; and these differences should be 
recognized. Any plan of grading pupils has a tendency to hold in check the 
bright pupils and thus to deaden rather than to quicken mental activity; and 
on the other hand, ordinary school classification may discourage the slow and 
backward pupils who fail to grasp clearly much of what is presented. 

"Single Division. The main arguments advanced in favor of a single divi- 
sion in classwork are: Fewer classes, and, therefore, more time for each exer- 
cise, and presumably more thorough work; accelerating effect of mass move- 
ment upon certain pupils; difficulty in keeping the division not reciting pro- 
fitajbly employed; and less work for the teacher. These arguments, however, 
have small weight in the mind of a genuine teacher thoroughly interested in the 
progress and best work of her pupils. 

"Two Divisions. The main arguments in favor of at least two divisions 
in the main subjects in a class are: 

(1) A small group of pupils can be kept interested, attentive, and 
mentally alert better than can a class of forty or fifty pupils. 

(2) A definite time for study and self-directed effort is afforded. In 
mass teaching there is a tendency to make the recitation too prominent, 
and to undervalue the worth of study. 

(3) The power of concentration and inhibition is strengthened by 
group teaching. 

(4) There is less opportunity for the teacher to talk and to explain 
in short periods when the class is in two division's than in long periods with 
a single division. 

(5) There will be more attention to the individual child and more 
opportunity for wise assistance and for the promotion of deserving pupils 
in a small group than in a large one." 

(h) MODIFICATION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY 

While our courses of study have been undergoing ahxiost continuous 
revision and modification on the basis of considerations other than those 
under chscussion, some of the changes instituted indicate that the neces- 
sity for mochfying the curriculum to meet varying pupil needs has been 
increasingly recognized. In addition to the modification of the course 
of study involved in the organization of special class/es the following may 
be'^mentioned in this connection. 

(1) Extension of Shopwork for boys and Domestic Science for girls — 1908. 

(2) EstabUshment of Vocational School for boys — 1909. It was intended 
at the time that such school would afford opportunities for continued education 
to those pupils who were not attracted by the academic courses in high schools . 

, (3) Minimum and Maximum Time Schedule, adopted 1913. 
"A minimum and maximum time schedule was recommended to the Board 
of Education. In a large community, with segregation of foreigners, it was 
felt that discretion as to the time devoted to the various subjects of the curri- 
culum should be given to principals. Hence, in most subjects a minimum time and 

112 



a maximum time was suggested. Thus, in a section in which Enghsh is diffi- 
cult, the maximum time in that subject may be prescribed by the principal. 
If that time be deducted from 1,500 minutes,'the remaining time may be used for 
the other subjects, provided no subject receives less than the minimum time. The 
time table has been so constructed that the maximum number of minutes may 
be given to arithmetic and English, and the remaining number of minutes will 
be sufficient to devote the prescribed minimum time to the other grade subjects." 

(4) Homemaking courses for girls in the elementary schools estabhshed 
1914. 

(5) Industrial courses for girls in the seventh year — -1914. 

(6) Housekeeping course for overage immigrant girls established in some 
schools — 1914. 

(7) Prevocational Courses established in Elementary Schools, 1914. 

The controlling ])rinciples underlying the plan are best given in the fol- 
lowing extracts from the report of Associate Superintendent Ettinger who was 
chiefly responsible for the introduction of these courses. 

"That our Elementary School is definitely prevocational^with reference to 
those pupils entering commercial or professional hfe, has been often recognized. 
Until recently, however, little attention has been given to those adolescent 
pupils of our 7th and 8th year grades whose inclinations, abilities, and pros- 
pective placement in the work-a-day world demand that we provide within 
the limits of the elementary grades, a type of experience in the elements of fun- 
damental trades that will enable them to discover whether or not they are fitted 
to do industrial work, :uid will enable them to gain an insight into conditions 
of industrj' under which work must be done. 

"Inasmuch as there are approximately twice as many adolescent pupils in 
our elementary grades as there are in our high schools, it should be obvious 
that a democratic scheme of education should not make completion of an 8th 
year course of study and admission to high school conditions precedent to secur- 
ing the variety of experiences that the versatihty of our pupil group demands. 
Just to the extent that we provide a differentiated course of study in oin- 7th 
and 8th years concurrent with the advent of adolescence, we are providing, 
a scheme of education which is essentially democratic because of its adaptability 
to the varying needs and abihties of the pupils. The characterization of our ele- 
mentary education as essentially undemocratic, even aristocratic, has been jus- 
tified because of the fact that we have assumed an identity of abiUty and social 
destination which is belied by daily experience. As Professor Dewey long since 
stated in 'The School and Society,' 'The great majority of human beings are 
characterized not by distinctly intellectual interests, but rather by practical 
impulses and dispositions,' and that 'while our educational leaders are talking 
of culture, the development of personaUty, etc., as the end and aim of educa- 
tion, the great majority of those who pass under the tuition of the school regard 
it only as a narrowly practical tool with which to get bread and butter enough 
to eke out a restricted life. If we were to conceive our educational end and 
aim in a less exclusive way, if v/e were to introduce into educational processes 
the activities which appeal to those whose dominant interest is to do and to 
make, w^e should find the hold of the school upon its members to be more vital 
and more prolonged, containing more of culture.' 

"Representative opinion holds that om- schools are not giving results pro- 
portionate to the time, in efficiency, culture, or character. There is a growing 
ijelief that in the name of culture much time is wasted, without securing real 
culture or substantial character which is the prime element of culture. As an 
economic ideal, the vocational movement looks toward preparation for skilled 
employment for those pupils who otherwise would leave school and become 
unskilled laborers. The fact that under present conditions many pupils leave 
at the end of the sixth grade is an additional argument for the time scheme 
proposed by the committee. The demand upon tlie scientific and professional 
schools for thorough and extended courses calls for economy in all the prepara- 
tory courses (including the college). The vocational movement in the end wiU 
not detract from the culture ideal, but wiU give it a clearer interpretation. We 
believe that nothing will be lost to the best ideals of our civihzation — power 
of reflection or the need of transmitting wealth into scientific knowledge, liter- 
ature, art, and ethical standards. Allowing for all historical differences, the 
results in older countries, in developing high intellectual power, confirm this 
view of the educational scheme. 

"If the ethical problem of a democratic system of education is to promote 

113 



such an organization of society as will enable each individual to do the work 
for which he is best fitted, one essential requirement is a diversified curriculum 
which makes possible, in a partial way at least, an adjustment of the educa- 
tional process, particularly to that hitherto neglected group who have failed 
to find in book study that satisfaction which their practical nature craves." — ■ 
Annual Report for 1915-1916. 

"Three controlling principles underlie the plan: 

(o) The first principle is that at the end- of the sixth school year, a 
differentiated course of study should be organized, so that those adolescent 
pupils whose aptitude is possibly towards mdustrial work may have an oppor- 
tunity to work in shjaps and through a study of industrial conditions to 
determine whether or not they are fitted to undertake further practice in 
industrial work. The question involved is not one of dividing a school 
into 'thinkers' and 'doers,' but by so organizing the resources of the 
school that it shall offer an equality of opportunity denied under a bookish 
curriculum. 

(b) The second principle is that having determined through shop rota- 
tion the kind of industrial work for which the pupil seems to be best fitted , 
sufficient practice of that particular work shall be given to prepare him 
for continuing in a vocational school or in a technical high school. 

(c) The third principle is that while the cultural and social activities 
of the curriculum shall remain unchanged, the correlation between certain 
phases of academic and shopwork shall be effected. 

"However critical may be our attitude toward various phases of the experi- 
ment, I think we may safely claim that the work is an experiment in democracy 
or to be more specific an attempt to assure to our children a more democratic 
type of school than has been hitherto provided. For what can be less demo- 
cratic than to ignore the differences in inclinations, abilities and prospective 
social destinations of our pupils, and to assume that any eight-year type of 
bookish schooling is the best type of training despite the increasing variability 
easily discernible among pupils as they progress upward through the grades. 
If the ethical problem of a democracy is to require of each individual that which 
he is best fitted to do, it follows that a diversified curriculum of which indus- 
trial work is but a phase should supplement a minimum fundamental schooling 
of possibly six years duration." ' 

(i) MISCELLANEOUS 

(1) In 1909 the Compulsory Education Laws were changed so as to require 
entrance into school at seven instead of eight years of age. 

(2) In the same year an individual pupil's record card was adopted which 
provided a more adequate school history of each pupil than the former record. 

The above gives adequate indication that for some time there has 
been an increasing recognition upon the part of. our local school author- 
ities of the desirability of greater flexibility in grading, in course of study, 
and in methods of advancing pupils, than that permitted by the con- 
ventional forms of organization. On the other hand, it is to be pointed 
out that such variations or modifications as those referred to in- this sec- 
tion were with some exceptions more or less experimental in character, 
relatively limited in application, and hence comparatively not as far 
reaching in actual effect upon our school system as might be expected. 
A more purposive programme in this direction is needed. 

5. Better Grading through the Use of Mental and Educational 

Measurements 

That the ineffectiveness of the traditional scheme of classifying 
pupils for purposes of instruction has long been recognized by many of 
our local school administrators, and that they for some time have appre- 
ciated the necessity for modifying our educational programme for large 
numbers of our pupils, the previous section of this report bears witness. 
With th& recent advent of educational tests and measurements, how- 

114 



ever, such facts have been more forcibly brought to our attention. 
Through the use of such instruments, we have not only been made aware 
of the existence of ''individual differences" in our pupils, in a more objec- 
tive way, iDut we have also been able to measure the extent of such dif- 
ferences. That such means should be employed to provide a more effec- 
tive basis for grouping, was but the logical sequence of events. 

While there arc doubtless a number of other factors which should 
receive consideration in the classification of pupils into groups for pur- 
poses of instruction, the controlling elements in most cases are first the 
educational status of the pupils, and secondly, their relative ability to 
learn or to progress. 

(a) EDUCATIONAL STATUS AS A BASIS OF GRADING 

The first aim of grouping is to bring together the pupils who have 
the same educational status, pupils whose educational achievements or 
attainments are equal, and whose instructional needs are similar. If this 
could be effected, it is obvious that the task of instruction would be much 
simplified, tjie efforts of the teacher more fruitful, and the probability 
of more general success much greater than with a group of varied attain- 
ments and differing needs. 

Without discussing the relative accuracy or limitations of the former 
methods of determining the educational status or attainments of pupils, 
we may consider the more ol)jective means provided by educational 
measurements. Standard tests and scales are available for most of t-he 
essential subjects of the curriculum. Norms and standards of attain- 
ment have been set up for the several grades, and simple comparison 
of the achievement of a pupil or group of pupils with such standards 
gives us a fairly reliable index of the standing of the pupil according 
to grade. A pupil shows fifth grade reading ability or sixth grade skill 
in penmanship, or third grade achievement in arithmetical fundamentals. 
In similar manner, comparison of the achievements of the pupil may 
' be made with the average achievements of pupils of his own age or of 
other ages. The increasing practice of determining age-norms for edu- 
cationaftests, makes such comparison feasible. By indicating the achieve- 
ment of the pupil in a given subject in terms of age rather than grade, 
we obtain a measure of the educational status of the pupil that is termed 
educational age. An educational age of twelve years in arithmetic, for 
instance, would indicate an attainment in this subject that equaled the 
average or normal performance of twelve-year-old pupils. For a group 
of subjects, a composite educational age may be determined by aver- 
aging the pupil's educational age for each of the subjects, weighting each 
according to its educational significance or importance. 

Determination of the grade standing, or educational ages of pupils 
however, will not suffice as a sole index of educational status. Pupils 
differ not only in educational attainments, but they vary also in the 
rate at which they learn or have learned. It is obvious that grouping 
on the basis of achievements at a given date would result in what might 
be called static grading, in groups that would be on a par for but a short 
time. As instruction proceeded, differences in the rate of learning would 
soon produce differences that would destroy the equality that existed 
at the start. The rate at which pupils progress is therefore significant, 
and should be included in determining educational status. 

As one measure of the rate of progress or learning ability of pupils, 

115 



we may employ the Educational Quotient; which is the ratio of the edu- 
cational age of the pupil to his chronological age. If a pupil twelve 
years old shows an educational age of twelve years, his educational quo- 
tient would be 100. If the same pupil showed an attainment of an edu- 
cational age of only eleven, his quotient would be 92. This would mean 
■ that his growth in subject matter or educational abilities has not kept 
pace with his growth in years. If the E. Q. is above 100, it would indi- 
cate that the pupil shows an educational development beyond that of 
the average child of his age. 

While the educational status of the pupil as revealed by his edu- 
cational age and his E. Q. possesses a number of advantages for grading 
purposes, it has certain limitations which preclude its use as the sole 
basis for grading. While they indicate more reliably than any former 
means the present educational status of the pupil, it must be kept in 
mind that such status is a resultant of a number of factors that have 
been operative in the situation. Mental ability, health, regularity of 
attendance or absence, application or attitude toward work, the ability 
of teachers, the organization of the school, and other elements are all 
factors that have influenced the result produced. Many pupils of supe- 
rior mental ability, the experience of teachers has frequently shown, 
are doing only passable school work, while, on the other hand, many 
pupils of only average intelligence are doing better than average work. 
So that while the educational age and the E. Q. are indices of the prog- 
ress achieved to date, they are only partially an index of mental ability. 

(6) MENTAL ABILITY AS A BASIS FOE GRADING 

The second important aim of grading is to bring together those 
pupils who can progress at the same rate. This, the previous paragraph 
has shown, can be determined only indirectly from measures of educa- 
tional achievement, because, while the quality of school work is depend- 
ent upon mental ability, it is also conditioned by other factors for whose 
influence allowance cannot be readily made. For a more direct measure 
of the mental ability of the child, we depend upon objective tests of intelli- 
gence, which in the form of group tests the industry of modern psychol- 
ogists has recently made available in plenteous variety. The unit of 
expression in such tests is the age, and comparison of the scores of pupils 
with the norms of different ages yields the mental age of the pupil. This 
informs us of the level of development reached by the pupil in compari- 
son with children of the same age, all of whom are assumed to have been 
subjected to the same environmental conditions and experiences. From 
the measurement of the learning that has taken place we obtain an index 
of the learning ability of the individual. The relative rate of growth 
may be expressed by the ratio of the mental age to the chronological age, 
which ratio is called the Intelligence Quotient. An I. Q. of over 100 for 
a child of a given age would indicate a growth in mental ability beyond 
the growth of the average child of that age. An I. Q. of 75 would mean 
that the mental development of the child has been but 75% of the normal 
growth in intelligence. 

Grouping pupils solely upon the basis of mental ability would not 
be altogether satisfactory. While it would bring together pupils of the 
same learning ability it would ignore the differences that exist among such 
pupils in educational attainments. The fact that a ten-year-old pupil 
in the flfth grade has a mental age of fifteen is no justification for the 

116 



immediate transfer of such pupil to the first year of hi^h school. The 
educational status of the child may show actually only fifth or sixth 
grade attainment. If classification of pupils proceeded solely on the basis 
of the results of intelhgence tests, it would bring together in the same 
group pupils of varying school attainments, and tend to leave serious 
gaps in the knowledge of subject matter of the individual pupil. Proper 
grading must consider both mental ability and educational status as well 
as other elements. 

(c) GKADING SCHEME EMPLOYED IN A NUMBER OF SCHOOLS 

It follows from the above that for effective classification of pupils 
for instructional purposes it is essential that both mental abihty and 
educational status be taken into account. Each one alone is unsatis- 
factory and has practical disadvantages. 

In each of the schools in which this Bureau has cooperated with the 
principals in the reclassification of pupils on the basis of mental measure- 
ments, several intelligence tests were given besides a battery of edu- 
cational tests in all the essential subjects of the curriculum. From the 
results there were obtained for each pupil his mental age and intelligence 
quotient and his average educational age and educational quotient. 
Classification then proceeded according to the following schematic outline : 



^glf ICATIQN fiO i OE" ' 



axrj\j\oH 




iNTCLLtGCNCE. 










Age Level hi Shown 
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nW 1 


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Figure 32 

On the basis of age in subject matter, pupils were placed tentatively 
on the corresponding grade levels. After the tentative grade classifica- 
tion was effected pupils were divided into five groups on the basis of 
their I. Q. into very dull, dull, average, bright and very bright. This 
completed the tentative classification upon the basis of the test results. 

117 



If such were finally adopted, some extreme reclassifications would be 
made. Other factors in the situation require consideration. The teacher's 
judgment should be consulted, the piipil's school record inspected, his 
score in each subject as well as his composite score should be examined, 
his physical development, health, social devalopment, emotional and 
other characteristics must all be taken into account before final deci- 
sion is reached. The problem of demotion will arise, and must be decided 
in the light of all the information available and after consideration of the 
best interests of the child. Careful consideration of all such factors 
results frequently in modifying the extreme reclassification that would 
occur if test results were the sole determinants. 

Numerous administrative problems arise in connection with any 
reclassification project. The size of the various groups controls in many 
cases the number of divisions possible. In small schools the number 
of pupils is not large enough in each of the groups to warrant separate 
classes. In such cases the division may be threefold (after the very low 
I. Q.'s have been segregated for ungraded classes) based in each grade 
upon the ranking of pupils according to size of their I. Q.'s. The highest 
third, the middle third and the lowest third may be placed in separate 
classes. All such problems are individual to the particular school, and 
can be solved only after due consideration of the elements of organiza- 
tion involved. 



118 



VI— FLEXIBILITY VERSUS UNIFORMITY IX SCHOOL 
ORGAXIZATIOX AXD PROGRESS 

L Significance for School Organization of Pupil Classification 

According to Ability 

The widespread adoption of the classification of pupils .according 
to abilit}^ carries with it the acceptance of the implications which such 
classification. has with respect to our educational procedure. It signifies 
the sul3stitution of more valid principles for the assumptions that formed 
the basis of the traditional type of school organization. Recognition of 
the existence of individual differences in ability and mental develop- 
ment implies as a corollary a realization that all pupils cannot satis- 
factorily complete the courses of study as traditionally planned, that 
uniform educational treatment will not bring uniform results," and that 
similarity in chronological age does not necessaril}' mean similarity in 
mental maturity. As a consequence it follows that flexibility in our 
educational programme must replace the more or less rigid uniformity 
that has hitherto prevailed. In place of one uniform aim for all pupils, 
varying goals must be set up, in place of one curriculum for all pupils, 
several courses must be provided, instead of uniform standards of prog- 
ress vaiying standards must be adopted, and in place of the more or less 
chronological scheme of promotion, a more effective basis for periodic 
reclassification of pupils must be devised. 

Consideration of the specific needs of the several pupil groups result- 
ing from reclassification will serve to indicate some of the problems 
involved. 

2. Specific Provision Required for Varying Pupil Groups 
(a) very dull or backward pupils 

Early recognition of the presence of mentally defective pupils in 
the school groups led to the adoption in this city in 1903 of the policy 
of segregating such pupils in special classes (ungraded classes) for special 
treatment. For this group the aim of the elementary schools to give 
each child a complete elementary education obviously had to be modified, 
the course of study necessarily had to , be changed, and current stand- 
ards of grade progress could not apph'. 

The pressing need at present is more adequate provision in terms 
of classes. At date such classes number 258, and accommodate 4,777 
pupils. This number is inadequate. Failure to provide more in the 
past has been due in part to an erroneous idea as to the number of such 
pupils involved. In the past, pupils for such classes were first selected 
on the basis of the personal judgment of the teacher and the principal, 
which was subsequentlv verified by careful individual mental examina- 
tions. With the widespread use of 'group tests of mental ability a great 
many more pupils of this type will be discovered and more comprehen- 
sive provision will have to be made. Conservative estimates place the 
number of such pupils at 2% of the school population, which would 
mean for New York about 16,000 pupils, or 1,000 classes. Inadequate 

119 



provision for this group will render ineffective the scheme of classifica- 
tion proposed for all pupils. 

In the second place, such classes must be accepted as part of the 
organization of every school and as necessary as any other type. In 
a number of instances in the past the establishment of classes of this 
type in given schools was not welcomed by principals, who felt that it 
reflected upon the efficiency of the school. We have accepted in theory 
the principles of individual differences in ability, and we must accept it 
in practice. 

Whether the present educational treatment of such pupils is the 
best possible is a question for future determination. Doubtless with 
increased knowledge and skill in handling pupils of low grade intelli- 
gence, further modifications in the educational regimen for this group 
will be made. Numerous problems relating to the instruction of such 
pupils still await solution. 

(6) DULL PUPILS 

The second group for which a modified educational procedure is 
required comprises the dull and dull normal pupils. Such pupils are above 
the mental defective type, but below the normal or average. They 
range in I. Q. from about 70 to 90. Of such pupils we have a large num- 
ber, and under the traditional plan, they, for the most part, would be 
found scattered among the normal groups, a hindrance to the progress 
of their group, a distracting problem to the teacher and subject to the 
personal discouragement which accompanies their inevitable failure in 
competing with their more favored classmates. These pupils recruit the 
ranks of the retarded and overage. 

Present provision for such pupils consists of an inadequate number 
of special classes of lower than average register, in which a more or less 
slightly modified course of study is followed. The ineffectiveness of our 
past and present efforts with such pupils is due in large measure to the 
fact that their retarded status was attributed quite generally to other 
causes than inferior mental ability, and that it was regarded as tem- 
porary in character, to be improved or overcome by the application of 
various remedial measures of one kind or another. Upon such assump- 
tions no adequate differentiation in aim or course of study was made. 
It was still felt that by special attention, most of such pupils could be 
enabled to complete the elementary course in approximately eight years. 
Our experience shows, however, that only a few graduate, and then only 
after the exertion of the greatest degree of educational pressure and effort. 
The bulk drop out around the sixth or seventh year. Our present 
endeavors with such pupils are not only ineffective, but also wasteful of 
energy and time. 

The grouping of such pupils for differentiated treatment will serve 
the purpose of focussing attention upon their specific needs and upon their 
possibilities. Inasmuch as the group ranges from the borderline of feeble- 
mindedness up to normal mental ability, it will be possible to make 
more refined differentiations. Some pf the pupils will be able to accom- 
.plish what is required by the current curriculum, but at a slower rate 
of progress. For others, the present course of study must be modified 
by the elimination of non-essentials, and a slower rate of progress required. 
For the lowest group, work a little in advance of that prescribed for 
ungraded classes may be necessary. What will most satisfactorily meet 

120 



the needs of such pupils is a question for actual experimentation rather 
than theoretical speculation. Under more skillful methods our future 
experience may demonstrate that we have not in the past capitalized 
sufficiently the mental abilities of such pupils, limited as such abilities 
may be. Under the more favorable conditions resulting from more 
refined grouping, more effective work will be possible. 

(c) AVERAGE OR NORMAL GROUPS 

The third group consists of those who are of normal or average ability. 
This group will be the largest in our pupil distribution, and for them the 
present course of study appears to function most satisfactorily. What is 
normal progress according to current standards is possible for most of 
this group. At the same time, it is essential even here to make provi- 
sion for varying rates of progress due to the influence of factors other 
than mental ability. 

(d) BRIGHT PUPILS, ABOVE AVERAGE ABILITY 

For those pupils who are above normal ability, more specific and 
adequate provision than that possible under present conditions is needed. 
While the necessity for doing something for such pupils has long been 
recognized more or less vaguely, the provision made to date has not met 
their needs. In the past, the selection of such pupils was based solely 
upon the judgment of the teacher and such judgment has very frequently 
been faulty. Failure to distinguish between the possession of extra 
ability and the possession in high degree of the so-called school virtues 
has frequently resulted in the neglect of the really bright pupils for those 
whose good manners, conduct, respectful attitude, glibness of response, docil- 
ity, or immobihty of posture, etc., served to recommend them most favor- 
ably to the teacher Again, in most cases, the teacher, although al)le to . 
select the bright pupils, has been reluctant to lose those members of the 
class whose good work raised the class average results and offset the poor 
work of the less able pupils. Therefore, for the most part, such pupils 
were allowed to remain in the ordinary classes, and in consequence tended 
to develop habits of listlessness, inattention, and indolence. The more 
scientific basis for selection now available will not only make such selec- 
tion more accurate, but it will also serve to prove that the number of 
such pupils is greater than our past experience has shown. 

The provision made for such pupils in the past has been limited 
in extent. It has usually taken the form of more than average progress, 
— the completion of three terms' work in two, or of two terms in one in 
"rapid advancement" classes, which have been a feature of our schools 
for the last two decades, and which took the place of the practice of 
"skipping a grade" in vogue prior to 1900. While it is desirable from 
some points of view to have those pupils who can complete the elemen- 
tary course in less than eight years, and Avhile probably this is all that 
is possible with those pupils who are but slightly above average m abil- 
ity, careful consideration must be given to other factors than mental 
abiHty, The physical development of the child, his social maturity, his 
development, needs and interests in other than intellectual directions, 
must be taken into account. For those who are considerably above 
the average in ability, a broader curriculum, or a more intensive course 

121 



of study than the traditional is a possibility that may be more desirable 
than the mere saving of pupils' time. What should be done, or what 
can be done in these directions, will probably be determined by careful 
experimentation in the near future. 

(e) VERY BRIGHT OR GIFTED PUPILS 

Under the conventional plan little or no special provision has been 
made for the very bright or "gifted" pupils. Under the more recent 
plan of classification, the special needs of such exceptional, pupils will 
receive similar attention as that accorded for some time to those of sub- 
normal ability. 

Experimental work has already been under way for several years 
in New York to determine what special provision must be made to adapt 
our conventional courses of study and methodology to meet the needs 
of such pupils. The work in such special classes (called Terman classes) 
has aimed not only at more rapid progress upon the part of pupils in 
covering the regular course of study, but more specifically has attempted 
to provide broader educational opportunities, an enriched cultural curri- 
culum, and a type of instruction widely different from the traditional 
methods. 

(/) SUMMARY 

The above discussion of the special needs of the different pupil 
groups resulting from a reclassification upon the basis of ability indi- 
cates that the adoption of such a plan of grouping involves an exten- 
sive modification of our present educational programme. While up to 
date some effort has already been made to meet the various needs of the 
pupils, such efforts have not been effective nor adequate. More purposive 
differentiation in our school organization, in our courses of study, and 
in our methods of instruction, is essential. The, aim of the experimental 
work now under way in this city and elsewhere is the determination of 
such specialized methodology, and the formulation of such differentiated 
courses of study, as will provide the most effective educational opportu- 
nities and treatment for pupils of different levels of ability. With the 
successful outcome of such experimental endeavor, the future will hear 
no more of "misfit pupil," neither of misfit course of study. 



3. Flexible Standards of Progress 

Up to the present time the progress of pupils through the grades 
has been indicated in the following ways: 

First. By age-grade status which is determined by a comparison 
of pupils' ages with the ages set up as standards for entering or com- 
pleting the given grades. A pupil, according to our present age stand- 
ards, should be eleven years old upon entering the sixth grade or year 
of school. If he is twelve he is overage, and slow progress is assumed 
upon his part. If he is ten, he is underage, and he is characterized as 
accelerated. The efficiency of the school, and of the school system, 
was by many judged by the number of overage pupils. The lower the 
number, the better the schools. 

Second. Pupils' school progress was also measured by the number 
of terms or years a pupil had been in school and the number of grades 

122 



he had completed. If the j^upil has completed four grades in four school 
terms, he has made normal progress. If he has taken less time, he has 
made rapid progress, and if he has taken more time, he is retard(>d. 
Again, the efficiency of the work of a school or school system was deter- 
mined by the number of retarded pupils. If there were manj^ who did 
not progress regularly, or according to the standard I'ates, the work of 
the school was considered ineffective. 

Third. Promotion rates were used as indices of the success of our 
educational efforts. A school that promoted 90% of its pupils was con- 
sidered a more efficient school than one that promoted only 80%. 

Fourth. More recently the progress of pupils has been measured 
by the results of standard tests and measurements in various subjects. 
Such measurements showed the number of pupils in any given grade 
whose performance equaled or surpassed the standard achievement for 
such grade. Indices of efficiency have been worked out (percentage of 
the total number of pupils in a class who attained standard scores) and 
the character of the instruction has been judged thereby. 

In all of these methods, the standards of progress set up are uni- 
form for all pupils. Based upon the assumption that uniform progress 
is possible for all pupils, they fail to make any allowance for varying 
pupil ability. Because of this their use yields information that is mis- 
leading, if not actually misrepresentative of the actual conditions obtain- 
ing. For instance, a pupil of more than average l^rightness who has 
advanced a grade each school term is considered, in accordance with 
present standards, to have made normal progress. Similarly, a pupil 
who is below average brightness, and who has likewise, by special atten- 
tion, special application, or in other ways, managed to advance regu- 
larly is also considered to have made normal progress. If the abilities 
of these two pupils are taken into consideration, it must be evident that 
as rapid progress cannot be expected of the pupil of less than normal 
ability as of the more able pupil. On this basis, the progress of the first 
pupil has not been equal to his potential progress so that he is relatively 
making slow progress. On the other hand, in the case of the less able 
pupil, the anticipated rate of progress has l)een exceeded and relatively 
such pupil has made more than normal progress. Failure to take into 
consideration the varying ability of the two pupils results in judging them 
Ijoth to have made normal progress, and this does not indicate the true 
state of affairs. 

The necessity of judging actual accomplishment in terms of possible 
achievements is apparent upon reflection. With the adoption of a type 
of school organization whose grouping of pupils recognizes the need of 
differentiation or classification according to ability, present uniform 
standards of progress become meaningless. If, as suggested in the pre- 
ceding sections, there are esta])lished in our system a numl)er of parallel 
courses of study for the normal, the dull and the bright, with varying 
content and requirements, it is obvious that current grade distinctions 
and standards of progress cannot apply. New standards must be set up 
which recognize that achievement is relative and not absolute, and which 
therefore will vary according to the particular course or particular pupil 
group. Such varying standards are lacking at present. Their determin- 
ation awaits the formulation of curricula for the various levels of ability. 
In time, we shall no doubt have standards of progress for the dull, the 
normal, the bright, and the very bright, which shall differ, not only 
quantitatively, but also qualitatively. 

12.3 



4. Accomplishment Quotient 

That differences in mental capacity among the individuals that 
comprise a class group among various classes, or among the pupil groups 
of different groups, determine materially the educational attainments 
achieved by such groups, has been recognized increasingly with the use 
of mental and educational tests. With the earlier use of standard mea- 
surements differences in achievement were attributed to differences in 
various elements of school administration, organization, and instruction. 
The superiority of some schools over others in achievement has been 
pointed to with pride and explained most frequently by reference to the 
excellent teaching, or to the more effective supervision that obtained. 
The relative inferiority of other schools has resulted in criticism of the 
quality of the teaching, etc. Rarely indeed has any reference been made 
to the differences in ability of the pupil groups of the classes or schools 
compared. 

More recently, the increased use of intelligence tests in conjunction 
with educational tests has led to the evaluation of educational achieve- 
ment in terms of mental ability. Franzen and Pintner both have con- 
tributed by formulating the principle involved, and by suggesting the 
unit, the accomplishment quotient, as a unit of measuring relative prog- 
ress or attainment. 

The Accomplishment Quotient (A. Q.) is the E. Q. (Educational 
Quotient) divided by the I. Q. (Intelligence Quotient). The I. Q. is a 
measure of the rate at which the pupil has developed mentally. It indi- 
cates his native ability. Inasmuch as it has a high correlation with maxi- 
mum possible school progress, it is regarded as an index of the potential 
rate of progress of the individual. The E. Q. (the educational or subject 
age of the pupil divided by his chronological age) shows the actual rate 
of progress. ''Since the I. Q. is the potential rate of progress and the 
E. Q. is the actual rate of progress, the ratio of E. Q. to I. Q. gives the 
percentage of what that child could do, that he has actually done. Thus, 
a child with an I. Q. of 1.32, whose reading quotient (R. Q.) is 110, though 
he is doing work that is above normal, is not doing work which is above 

normal for him. His j ' ^' is zr~ whereas if he were progressing at his 

132" 
optimum rate, it would equal :|-^ "The accomplishment quotient is 

the degree to which his actual progress has attained to his potential prog- 
ress by the best possible measures of both. It evaluates the accom- 
plishment of the child in terms of his own ability. A brilliant child 
would no longer be praised for work which in terms of his own effort 
is 70% perfect in terms of the group 90%. A stupid child who does work 
which is marked 70 in terms of the class, but 90 in terms of his own, a 
limited ability, is no longer discouraged." — Franzen. 

The significance of the Accomplishment Quotient as a more accur- 
ate measure of the progress of pupils may be illustrated by the follow- 
ing data taken from the results of certain measurements conducted by 
this Bureau during the last school year. In connection with a reclassi- 
fication project in one of our smaller schools located in one of the con- 
gested sections of the city, all pupils above the 3A grade were given the 
following tests: 

Haggerty, Intelligence Tests, Delta 1 and 2 

124 



National Intelligence Tests 

Kelley-Trabiie Language Scales 

Woodv-McCall Arithmetic 

Thorndike-McCall Reading 

Nifenecker Geography, Series A 

Spelling Test (from Buckingham Scale) 
For each pupil there were obtained the 

Chronological Age 

Number of Terms Spent in School 

Mental Age 

Intelligence Quotient 

Educational Age for each Subject 

Composite Educational Age 

Educational Quotient 

Accomplishment Quotient 
The following tables presented herewith include data for sixteen 
classes involving 641 pupils. 

(a) AGE-GRADE STATUS 

Table LI presents a distribution of the pupils according to chrono- 
logical ages and to grades. According to chronological age-grade stand- 
ards there are 155 pupils, or 24.1%, under age, 216, or 33.8%, of normal 
age, and 270, or 42.1%, overage for their grades. Table LII shows the 
same pupils distributed according to mental ages. 



TABLE LI— DISTRIBUTION OF 641 PUPILS ACCORDING TO GRADES AND CHRONO- 
LOGICAL AGES 



Chronological 
ages (mos.) 


4 A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


8.4-89 

90 

96 

102 

108 


1 

4 

21 


2 
1 
3 


1 

9 
27 


1 
14 

IS 


1 

5 

20 


1 
2 
8 
9 


1 

7 

29 


114 


25 

IS 


37 


120 


15 
19 


78 


126 


16 
9 

3 
3 
4 
2 


14 
16 


75 


132 


^2 

6 
4 
1 
4 

1 


18 

16 


86 


138 


12 
14 
9 
7 
5 
6 
3 
2 
2 
1 


25 
20 


76 


144 


14 

9 
10 
6 
3 
6 
2 
2 
1 


12 

IS 


68 


150 


6 
10 
8 
8 
3 
4 
1 
1 


49 


156 


4 

S 
4 
5 
2 
2 


36 


162 '. 


32 


168 


25 


174 


16 


180 


14 


186 


7 


192 


5 






Total 


113 


79 


135 


120 


112 


82 


641 




26 


5 


44 


34 


26 


20 


155 








43 


35 


30 


34 


45 


30 


217 






Overage 


44 


40 


61 


52 


41 


32 


270 


Median in months 


122 


132 


135 


141 


146 


153 





]2.5 



TABLE LII— DISTRIBUTION OF 641 PUPILS ACCORDING TO GRADES AND MENTAL 
AGES (AV. HAGGERTY AND NATIONAL) 



Mental ages 
in months 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


78 


2 
4 

21 
26 
15 


1 
2 

13 

14 

7 


1 

2 

2 

8 

11 

16 

20 

18 


4 
3 
10 
11 

18 


1 
4 
2 
4 
10 
10 


1 
2 
3 
2 
5 




1 


84 , 




90 


8 


96.... 


31 


102 




108 


53 






114 : 


22 
3 


63 






120 


10 
14 


49 






126 


7 
9 
3 
1 


18 
13 


69 






132 .. 


7 
4 

2 
3 


12 
12 


56 


138 


7 
8 
1 
5 
3 
1 
1 


10 
16 


41 






144 


18 
7 
9 
7 
2 
1 
1 
2 
3 


S 


51 






150 


12 

13 

9 

4 

2 

1 

2 

12 


29 






156 


5 
4 
6 
1 
3 
2 
28 


35 


162.... 


23 


168 


13 


174 




180 




186 


6 


192... 


43 






Total 


113 


79 


135 


120 


112 


82 ■ 


641 






Underage 


68 


39 


78 


46 


31 


18 


280 






Normal age 


25 


24 


31 


24 


26 


15 


145 


Overage 


20 


16 


26 


50 


55 


49 


216 


Median.. 


109 


120 


123 


139 


144 


169 









TABLE LIU— DISTRIBUTION OF 641 PUPILS —GRADES 4A TO 6B— ACCORDING TO 

AGE-GRADE STATUS 



(a) Number op Pupils 





Underage 
mental 


Normal age 
mental 


Overage 
mental 


Total 


Underage, chronological 

Normal age, chronological .'.. 

Overage, chronological- 


47 

74 

159 


32 
53 
59 


76 
89 
52 


155 

■ 216 

270 






Totals 


280 


144 


217* 


641 








(6) By 


Pebcentages 








Underage 
mental 


Normal age 
mental 


Overage 
mental 


Total 


Underage, chronological 

Normal age, chronological 

Overage, chronological 


7.3 
11.7 
24.8 


5.0 

. 8.3 

9.1 


11.8 

13.8 

8.2 


24.1 
33.8 

42.1 


Totals 


43.8 


22.4 


33.8 


100.0 







126 



Applyinji mental age-grade standards we find that out of the 641 
pupils, 280, or 43.7%, are younger mentally than the required grade level, 
that 145, or 22.6%, are of normal mental development for their grades, 
while 216, or 33.7%, are mentally older than the age standards for their 
grades and accordingly are educationally retarded. That chronological 
age does not mean a corresponding mental maturity is seen in Table 
LIII, which shows a distribution of the group according to both chron- 
ological age-grade status and mental age-grade status. The failure to 
take ability into consideration leads to erroneous conclusions as to pupils' 
progress. For instance, according to chronological standards the 155 
pupils who are underage are assumed to have made rapid progress or to 
be accelei'atetl. When their relative mental ages are considered it is 
seen that 76, or 49%, are older mentally than the mental age-grade level, 
and accordingly such pupils are educationally not accelerated, but rela- 
tively retarded; that 32, or 20.7%, are only of normal mental age, while 
47, or 30.3%, are below the mental age level for their grades. These 
last are in reality accelerated or above the grade where their mental 
age would place them. 

Of the 216 pupils chronologically of normal age, only 53, or 24.5%, 
are of normal mental age. There are 74, or 34.2%, who are below the 
mental age-grade level, while 89, or 41.2%, are older mentally. 

Of the 270 pupils chronologically overage 159, or 58.9%., are men- 
tally l)elow the level required of the grade and are therefore not retarded 
but educationally accelerated; 59, or 21.8%, are of normal mental age, 
while only 52, or 19.3%, are above the mental grade levels and hence 
retarded educationally. 



TABLE LIV— NUMBER OF PUPILS PER THOUSAND IN ONE SCHOOL ACCORDING 
TO AGE-GRADE CLASSIFICATION 





Mental Age Standard 




standard 


Underage 


Normal age 


Overage 


Total 


Underage 


303 
346 
589 


207 
244 
219 


490 
410 
192 


1,000 
1,000 




1,000 







(b) EDUCATIONAL AGES 



From the results of the standard tests in subject matter the com- 
posite educational ages for the pupils in the group under consideration 
were determined and are presented bv grades in the following table 
(Table LV). 

Applying as educational age-grade standards the ages used as chron- 
ological standards it appears that out of the 641 pupils 87, or 13.5%, 
are advanced, 157, or 24.5%, show normal progress, while 397, or 61.9%, 
are backward. The results it thus is seen are different from those obtained 
in using chronological age-grade standards. 

127 



TABLE LV— EDUCATIONAL AGES OF 641 PUPILS IN GRADES 4A TO 6B 

INCLUSIVE 



Educational Ages ^^^ 
IN Months 


4B c 


A 5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


72- 77.. 

78- 83 

84- 89... 


5 
6 
17 

22 
20 
17 


2 
4 
17 
12 
14 
14 


1 
1 

7 

10 1 
12 6 
19 5 
29 12 
17 16 


1 
3 
8 
6 
14 
18 


1 
6 
9 

S 
12 


6 
9 


90- 95 


28 


96-101 


50 


102-107... 

108-113 ;.. 


51 

58 


114-119 


13 

8 


77 


120-125 


9 


62 


126-131 


4 
1 


1 


17 25 


70 






132-137 


4 


17 15 


63 






138-143........ 


" 1 
1 


4 13 


22 
1^ 


52 






144-149... 


1 15 
5 
6 
1 


13 

12 


47 






150-155 


12 
7 
2 
2 


29 






156-161 


12 
3 
4 
1 

1 


25 


162-167 


6 


168-173 


6 


174-179 


1 


180-185 




186-191 


1 






Total 1 


13 


79 1 


35 120 


112 


82 


. 641 






Advanced 


5 


6 


5 27 


23 


21 


87 


Normal.... 


21 


10 


34 28 


39 


25 


157 


Retarded 


87 


63 


96 65 


50 


36 


397 






Total 1 


13 


79 1 


35 120 


112 


82 


641 






Median 1 


04 


110 1 


18 131 


140 


146 





(c) INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS 

The preceding measures of progress result from the apphcation of 
uniform grade standards independent of considerations of the relative 
abilities of different individuals. The differences in the abilities of the 
group are shown in Table LVI, which presents a distribution of intelli- 
gence quotients for the pupils by grades. Of the 641 pupils 48, or 7.5%, 
are very bright (above 130 I. Q.), 19% are bright (110 to 129 I. Q.), 
34.9%o are average (90 to 109 I. Q.), 30.2%o are dull (70 to 89 I. Q.), and 
8.3% are very dull (below 70 I. Q.). The median I. Q. for the entire 
group is 96.3, which is slightly below the normal, the 25 percentile is 
82.4 I. Q., while the 75 percentile is 111.1 I. Q. The middle 50%, 
range from 82.4 to 111.1 as compared with the usual limits of 90 to 
110 I. Q. 



128 



TABLE LVI— INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS OF 641 PUPILS IN GRADES 4A TO 6B 

INCLUSIVE 



I. Q. 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


50- 59.. . 


2 

7 

19 

21 

34 

16 

8 

4 

1 

1 


1 

8 

8 
22 . 
16 
13 

8 

2 

1 


7 
10 
23 
29 
15 
27 
14 
6 
2 

2 


1 

10 

13 

17 

IS 

21 

21 

11 

4 

3 

1 


3 
12 
12 
23 
20 
22 

li 
11 

3 


4 

4 

14 

11 

10 

12 

8 

9 

9 

1 


11 

42 
79 


60- 69 


70- 79 


80- 89 


115 


90- 99 ... 


117 


100-109 - 

110-119 


107 

85 


120-129 


37 


130-139 


28 


140-149 


18 


150-159 


o 






Total 


113 


79 


135 


120 


112 


82 


641 


LQ. 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


Percent. 




2 
12 
50 
40 


1 
10 
29 
30 


4 
20 
42 
52 


8 
32 
39 
30 


14 
28 
43 
24 


19 
20 
21 
IS 


48 
122 
224 
194 

53 

96.3 


7 5 


Bright 


19 


Average . 


34 9 


Dull . . 


30 2 


Very dull 

Median 




9 
92 




9 
90 


1 
8 


7 
9.5 


11 
100 




3 
103 




4 
108 




8.3 



(d) EDUCATIONAL QUOTIENTS 

Another measure of the abihties of the group is to be found in the 
educational quotients, a distribution of which is shown in Table LVI I. 
Of the group 5 pupils, or 0.8%, show E. Q.'s above 130, 74, or 11.5%, show 
above average educational progress, 252, or 39.3%, average progress, while 
229, or 35.7%, are below average, and 81, or 12.6%, have E. Q.'s below 70. 
The E. Q. supplements the I. Q.'s to a certain extent in showing the rela- 
tive learning abilities of the pupils in terms of progress achieved to date. 

The median E. Q. is 90.7, the 25 percentile is 77.5 E. Q., while the 
75 percentile is 102.2. The educational growth of the group is consid- 
erably below the normal. 



TABLE LVII— DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL QUOTIENTS OF 641 PUPILS IN 

GRADES 4A TO 6B 



E. Q. 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


40 


5 
15 
24 
19 
29 
15 
4 
2 


1 

10 

18 

28 

12 

7 

2 

1 


10 
18 
23 
16 
34 
20 
11 
3 


5 

8 
12 
21 
27 
27 
14 
5 
1 


6 
18 
18 
27 
22 
17 
3 
1 


3 
10 
22 
18 
14 
10 
. 3 

2 


1 


50 


20 


60 


60 


70 


105 


80 


124 


90 


147 


100 


105 


110 


58 


120 


16 


130 


5 


Total 


113 


79 


135 


120 


112 


82 


641 








6 
44 
43 
20 
86.6 


1 
2 
19 
46 
11 
84 


14 
54 
39 

28 
90 


1 
19 
54 
33 
13 
95 


1 
20 
49 
30 


95 


2 
13 
32 
32 

3 
93.3 


5 


Bright 


74 




252 


Dull 


229 


Very dull . 


81 


Median 









129 




40 50 (oO 70 - QO QO 100 110 120 130 140 d^ 



130 



(e) ACCOMPLISHMENT QUOTIENTS 

- The group under discussion, it has been seen, is considerably below 
the normal in terms of growth in subject matter or educational attainment. 
It is also somewhat below the normal in intelligence. The accomplish- 
ment quotient takes both attainment and ability into account and thus 
affords a more accurate measure of the progress of the group. 

Table LVIII shows a distribution of accomplishment quotients for 
each grade. The median A. Q. for the entire group is 93.7, the 25 per- 
centile is 86.4, while the 75 percentile is 101.4 A. Q. Of the 641 pupils 
350, or 54.6%, show E. Q. below 95, 213, or 33.2%, show normal accom- 
ishment, while only 78, or 12.1%, have A. Q. above 104. The results 
tend to indicate that, while the group was somewhat below in mental 
ability, it had not attained the achievement possible. 



TABLE LVIII— ACCOMPLISHMENT QUOTIENTS FOR 641 PUPILS IN GRADES i.\ TO 

6B INCLUSIVE 









Grades 








A.Q. 


4A 


4B 


5A 


5B 


6A 


6B 


Total 


50- 54 


3 

6 

8 

21 

20 

24 

17 

11 

3 


4 
5 

13 
8 

16 
9 

16 
5 
1 
1 

1 


3 
5 
11 
25 
23 
28 
19 
11 
6 

2 
1 

1 


1 

7 
9 

18 
24 
18 

28 
11 
2 

1 
1 


2 
3 
4 

15 

21 

20 

20 

14 

7 

3 

2 

1 


1 

1 
.2 
11 
19 
9 
12 
10 
10 
4 
1 

1 

1 




55- 59 . . 


t 


60- 64 




65- 69 

70- 74 


3 
16 


75- 79 


38 


80- 84 




85- 89 


102 


90- 94 . 


115 


95- 99 . 


109 


100-104 


104 


105-109 


49 


110-114 


10 


115-119 


4 


120-124 




125-129 


•t 


130-134 


2 






Total 


113 


79 


135 


120 


112 


82 


641 








58 
41 
14 
94.6 


46 

25 

8 

93 


67 
47 
21 
95 


59 
46 
15 
95.3 


65 
34 
13 

92.8 


55 

20 

7 

89.5 


350 




213 




78 




93.7 







The next table (Table LIX) shows a distribution of the 641 pupils 
according to both I. Q.'s and A. Q.'s. The last column at the right shows 
the average A. Q. for each level or group of I. Q.'s. The pupils who had 
I. Q.'s of 50 had an average A.Q. of 95, those whose I. Q. was 60 had 
an average A. Q. of 100, and so on down to the two pupils whose I. Q. 
was 150 and whose A. Q. averaged 80. It will be noted as illustrated 
in Figure 34 that with increasing I. Q. the average A. Q.'s grow smaller. 

131 



TABLE LIX— DISTRIBUTION OF 641 PUPILS ACCORDING TO INTELLIGENCE AND 
ACCOMPLISHMENT QUOTIENTS 



Intelligence 


Accomplishment Quotients (A. Q.) 


Total 


Average 
A.Q. 


quotients 
I.Q. 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


50 


1 


1 

1 
. 1 


3 
2 
3 
6 
8 
11 
10 
5 
5 
1 


3 

6 
15 
31 
20 
29 
37 

8 
17 
10 

1 


5 
14 
32 
31 
54 
41 
24 
18 
3 
2 


3 
12 
25 
40 
32 
26 
13 
1 
1 


2 
3 

8 
5 
2 


3 

2 
2 


2 


11 

42 

79 

115 

117 

107 

85 

37 

28 

18 

2 


95 


60 


100 


70 


97 2 


80 


97 1 


90 


95 8 


100; 






93 3 


MO 


89 6 


i20 


87 7 


130. . 


83 2 


140 

150 


82.2 
80 








Total...... 


1 


3 


54 


117 


224 


153 


20 


7 


.2 


641 





Table LX is a summary table which shows the number and percen- 
tage of each level of ability according to their accomplishment. Of the 
very dull 39.6% fall below expected accomplishment; of the dull 43.3%, 
of the average 45. 9%,, of the bright 79.5%, and of the very bright 93.8%, 
show accomplishment below anticipation. The largest number of pupils 
showing accomplishment beyond usual expectation is found in the very 
dull group with 24.5%. In the bright there are but 1.7%, and in the 
very bright, none. 



TABLE LX- 



-NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO ABILITY 
AND ACCOMPLISHMENT 



Ability 


Below expected 
accomplishment 


Normal 
accomplishment 


Above expected 
accomplishment 


Total 




21 39.6% 
84 43.3% 
103 45.9% 
97 79.5% 
45 93.8% 


19 35.8% 
70 36.1% 
98 43.7% 
23 19.0% 
3 6.2% 


13 24.5% 

40 20.6% 

23 10.3% 

2 1.7% 

0.0% 


53 


Dull 


194 




224 


Bright 


122 




48 






Total 


350 


213 


78 


641 







132 





"SO (dO to 60 ^0 100 IdD 120 150 140 l&O 
Clverase aO.Fop eaci) leue I oj^ I.O- ((o^i pu^//s) 



133 



Table LXI shows the percentage of each classification of accom- 
plishment (below expectation, normal, and above expectation) that are 
found in each level of ability. Of those doing less than they are capable 
only 6% are found in the very dull group, 24% in the dull, 29.4% in 
the average, 27.7% in the bright, and 12.9% in the very bright group. 
In other words, 70% of those with A. Q. of less than 100 are recruited 
from the pupils with normal or above average mental ability. Of those 
with normal or expected accomplishment 41.7% are in the dull and very 
dull groups. Of those doing better than the levels indicated by their 
mental ability 67.9% are pupils with less than average intelligence. 

This indicates that the less able pupils do much better relatively 
than the more able. As has already been mentioned the traditional 
courses of study and methods of instruction are intended to meet, theo- 
retically at least, the needs of the average pupils. By the exercise of 
as much pressure as circumstances permit, pupils below the average 
in ability are brought up as near to the average as possible, while those 
above average ability are permitted to rest or dawdle away their time 
as soon as they show average attainment. This is the logical result 
where uniform standards of achievement and progress obtain. 



TABLE LXI— PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO ABILITY SHOWING BELOW 

EXPECTED ACCOMPLISHMENT, NORMAL ACCOMPLISHMENT AND ABOVE 

EXPECTED ACCOMPLISHMENT 



Ability 


Below expected 
accomplishment 


Expected 
accomplishment 


Above expected 
accomplishment 




6.0% 
24.0% 
29.4 % 

27.7% 
12.9% 


8.9% 
32.8% 
46.0% 
10.8% 

1.4% 


16.6% 


Dull 


51.3 % 


Average 


29.5% 


Bright 


2.6% 




0.0% 






Total-. __ 


100.0% 


99.9 % 


100.0% 







134 



VII— SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The foregoing report has considered the progress of pupils through 
the grades as indicated by the conventional measures of 
1st — age-grade status, 

2d — rates of progress or number of terms spent in school to reach 
given grades, 

3d — current rates of promotion and non-promotion. 

The outstanding facts of the statistical data presented were, first, 
the presence of a large number of overage pupils who were, according 
to current chronological standards, older than they should be for the 
grades they are in; second, the large number of pupils who have spent 
more than normal time in covering the work of a given number of grades ; 
third, the cumulative effects of comparatively low rates of non-promo- 
tion in producing retardation and congestion. The significance of such 
facts has been pointed out. 

The fact that there are many overage pupils in relatively low grades, 
that through frequent non-promotion such pupils have spent many terms 
of their school life in repeating work they already have been over, that 
as a result although compelled to remain in school until they reach the 
age set as the standard for the normal completion of the elementary 
course, they will be eliminated without reaching the upper or final grades, 
the fact that manj^ who do complete the course take nine and ten years 
to cover eight years work, raise serious questions as to the efficacy of our 
present educational organization and efforts. 

As the report points out, our present type of school organization is based 
in large part upon premises the validity of which we are now questioning. 
It assumes in general a uniformity of ability in most pupils, upon which 
is predicated the validity of the prevailing uniformity in aim, educa- 
tional treatment and standards of progress that characterizes the present 
scheme of organization. If the premise were valid, then the degree of 
overage and retardation in a given school system would indeed be an 
index of the efficiency of its instructional efforts and achievements. 

Repeated investigation and measurement, however, have demon- 
strated that pupils vary in mental ability, in rates of mental growth, 
that chronological age is no exact criterion of mental age or develop- 
ment, and that while there are numerous other factors that condition 
or influence the progress of our pupils in school, the most significant 
determinant is the mental ability or general intelligence of the pupil. 
The variability in rates of progress that every age-grade and progress 
study shows to obtain, is but the inevitable result of the application of 
uniform treatment to varying abilities. 

Our chronological age-grade statistics do not therefore possess the 
significance as indices of pupil progress that attached to them hereto- 
fore. As the report shows, our overage and retarded pupils are, for the 
most part, pupils who are below the mental levels required for the satis- 
factory performance of the work of the grade they are in, and hence, 
when ability is taken into consideration, such pupils are not retarded, 
but advanced or accelerated educationally. Their retarded status has 

135 



in the past been attributed to a variety of causes which failed to include 
differences in mental capacity. Spurred on by the bogies of overageness 
and retardation we have made vigorous but futile attempts to bring 
such pupils up to the grade, chronologically. On the other hand, the 
application of intelligence and educational tests, has shown that many 
of the pupils now classified as either normal or as underage or accelerated, 
when their native abilities are considered, actually show not rapid prog- 
ress but slow progress, not normal but retarded status. Our age grade 
and progress statistics, therefore are inaccurate measures of pupils' prog- 
ress and therefore fail to indicate reliably our actual achievements. 
Rather are they measures of the existing maladjustment of pupils' abili- 
ties, pupil needs and educational aims and treatment, and convincing 
evidence of the extreme necessity for the modification and differentiation 
of our present aims, organization and grading, courses of study and instruc- 
tion and standards of progress to meet more adequately the existing vari- 
ations in pupil material. 

In place of the present scheme of grading and pupil classification, 
largely chronological in character, crude and wasteful in results, classi- 
fication and grading of pupils must take into account individual differ- 
ences in mental ability. The use of intelligence tests and educational 
measurements which provide the best available measurements of present 
educational status and potential learning ability of pupils must be used 
as a basis. The reclassification of pupils that has been effected in a grow- 
ing number of schools during the last two or three years must be encour- 
aged and extended throughout the system. 

While a number of attempts have been made in the past in New 
York schools to effect a more adequate adjustment of our educational 
processes to the needs of our pupils, such efforts have been intermittent 
and more or less circumscribed in scope. As indicated in the report, 
the reclassification of pupils upon the basis of ability requires as an accom- 
paniment the formulation of differentiated courses of study and stand- 
ards of progress for the various pupil groups that result from such reclass- 
ification. Uniformity of aim, uniformity of curriculum, uniformity of 
standards of progress must give way to flexibility, to differentiation. Not 
only must. more adequate and purposive provision be made for our dull 
and dull-normal pupils, but our bright and very bright pupils must receive 
such differentiated or special educational treatment as their abilities 
warrant and require. This does not mean a curtailment of educational 
opportunity for any child, no matter what his native endowment may be. 
It means that we realize consciously the significance of the facts that 
under the traditional scheme large numbers of our pupils fail to get beyond 
a comparatively low grade in the elementary school, that a still larger 
number fail to complete the elementary course, that only a few reach the 
high school, and only a very few graduate from high school. It means 
that we would substitute a more scientific and "conservative" means 
of classification for the above empirical selective process whose sifting 
power, more and more refined upward through the grades, resulted in 
wasteful and deadening repetition of academic tasks and in wholesale 
pupil elimination at the earliest possible legalized moment. It aims at 
the retention in school for longer periods of all pupils, the dull as well as 
the bright, but with such provision for each group as will afford each 
pupil equal opportunity to achieve, in fullest measure, the educational 
progress of which he is capable. 

136 



VIII— APPENDIX 



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169 



